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On Xi Jinping: How Xi's Marxist Nationalism is Shaping China and the World
An authoritative account of Xi Jinping's worldview and how it drives Chinese behaviour both domestically and on the world stage.
In his new book, On Xi Jinping, former Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd provides an authoritative account of the ideological worldview driving Chinese behaviour both domestically and on the world stage--that of President Xi Jinping, who now hold near-total control over the Chinese Communist Party and is now, in effect, president-for-life. Rudd argues that Xi's worldview differs significantly from those of the leaders who preceded him, and that this ideological shift is reflected in the real world of Chinese policy and behaviour.
Focusing on China's domestic politics, political economy, and foreign policy, Rudd characterises Xi Jinping's ideological framing of the world as "Marxist-Leninist nationalism." According to Rudd, Xi's notion of Leninism has taken the party and Chinese politics further to the left in comparison to his predecessors. Also, his Marxism has also taken Chinese economic thinking to the left-in a more decisively more statist direction and away from the historical dynamism of the private sector. However, Chinese nationalism under Xi has moved further to the right- towards a much, harder-edged, foreign policy vision of China and a new determination to change the international status quo. Xi's worldview is an integrated one, where his national ideological vision for China's future is ultimately inseparable from his view on China's position in the region and the world. These changes in worldview are also reflected in Xi's broader rehabilitation of the concept of "struggle" as a legitimate concept for the conduct of both Chinese domestic and foreign policy--a struggle that need not necessarily always be peaceful.
Finally, Xi's ideological worldview also exhibits a new level of nationalist self-confidence about China's future--derived from China's historical and civilizational strengths but reinforced by his Marxist-Leninist concept of historical determinism and the belief that the tides of history are now on firmly China's side. A powerful analysis of the worldview of arguably the most consequential world leader of our era, this will be essential reading for anyone interested in how Xi is transforming both China and the international order, and, most importantly, why?
In his new book, On Xi Jinping, former Australian Prime Minister Kevin Rudd provides an authoritative account of the ideological worldview driving Chinese behaviour both domestically and on the world stage--that of President Xi Jinping, who now hold near-total control over the Chinese Communist Party and is now, in effect, president-for-life. Rudd argues that Xi's worldview differs significantly from those of the leaders who preceded him, and that this ideological shift is reflected in the real world of Chinese policy and behaviour.
Focusing on China's domestic politics, political economy, and foreign policy, Rudd characterises Xi Jinping's ideological framing of the world as "Marxist-Leninist nationalism." According to Rudd, Xi's notion of Leninism has taken the party and Chinese politics further to the left in comparison to his predecessors. Also, his Marxism has also taken Chinese economic thinking to the left-in a more decisively more statist direction and away from the historical dynamism of the private sector. However, Chinese nationalism under Xi has moved further to the right- towards a much, harder-edged, foreign policy vision of China and a new determination to change the international status quo. Xi's worldview is an integrated one, where his national ideological vision for China's future is ultimately inseparable from his view on China's position in the region and the world. These changes in worldview are also reflected in Xi's broader rehabilitation of the concept of "struggle" as a legitimate concept for the conduct of both Chinese domestic and foreign policy--a struggle that need not necessarily always be peaceful.
Finally, Xi's ideological worldview also exhibits a new level of nationalist self-confidence about China's future--derived from China's historical and civilizational strengths but reinforced by his Marxist-Leninist concept of historical determinism and the belief that the tides of history are now on firmly China's side. A powerful analysis of the worldview of arguably the most consequential world leader of our era, this will be essential reading for anyone interested in how Xi is transforming both China and the international order, and, most importantly, why?
624 pages, Hardcover
Published October 15, 2024
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August 3, 2025
Kevin Rudd is one of the most pre-eminent analysts of China in the Western world. He has held many distinguished positions after exiting Australia’s parliament, including Chair of the Asia Society, and is currently Australia’s Ambassador to the United States. He has also recently published two books: The Avoidable War and On Xi Jinping. The latter is the subject of this piece and stems from Rudd’s PhD from Oxford University. The book is an examination of Xi Jinping’s Marxist-Leninist nationalism and how his ideological fervor is shaping China and the world.
I read the shorter version, which comprises chapters 1, 3, 4, 14, 15, and 16. I did this because I had already studied Xi Jinping Thought during my Honours thesis. These chapters outline Rudd’s thesis on Xi’s ideology and how it underpins everything China does. It begins by providing a historical overview of ideological development in China over the millennia with a focus on the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) era. It then pivots to analysing how this is shaping contemporary China and what the contours of Chinese domestic and international affairs will look like in a post-Xi world. This book is academically written, which may deter some readers.
Xi believes in historical and dialectical materialism, whereby contradictory forces of the capitalist West will lead to its inevitable fall. He has also seen the contradictions of the Deng-Jiang-Hu reform and opening period that underscored dramatic economic growth, yet concomitant inequality and diffusion of power away from the CCP. The CCP must once more own the means of production. Moreover, he has begun the Sinification of Marxism to meet traditional values of Chinese culture, particularly by returning China to the Middle Kingdom status it held prior to the century of humiliation.
Although insightful, Rudd’s scholarship was not particularly novel or revisionist. This was surprising considering that the purpose of a PhD is to generate original knowledge to a specialist subject area. Interestingly, some of Rudd’s conclusions echo ideas I explored in my Honours thesis, How the ideational underpinnings of the [first] Trump Administration may have been causing a “New Cold War” with a rising China. That thesis was written four years ago. My findings were underpinned by scholarship that was available at the time. What distinguishes Rudd from the scholars I relied on during my studies is that, having written his work four years later, he had access to a broader collection of Xi Jinping’s speeches.
Despite this criticism, Rudd will play a pivotal role for Australia and international relations theorists as we navigate the implosion of the American-led world order. I write this as Iran and Israel have tentatively agreed to an American-sponsored ceasefire. Although Iran and China have close ties, the latter has done little in the latest eruption of war in the Middle East. This has two causes, one practical and the other ideological. First, China does not have the wherewithal nor desire to intervene in foreign wars. Second, China under Xi is focused on expanding their power in the Pacific, including plans to one day retake Taiwan.
China’s rise has gone largely unimpeded due to America’s recent ideological incoherence and strategic distraction. Successive administrations have been distracted by quagmires in the Middle East. Bush began shifting American attention more to China prior to being bogged down in Afghanistan and then Iraq. Obama wanted to pivot to Asia, but Middle Eastern wars continued to rage, and new ones emerged. There was a slight reprieve during the first Trump administration, which was reversed under the Biden administration as new wars erupted post-October 7, with America’s bombing of Iran’s nuclear sites being the latest chapter in this saga. How can America prepare for war with a superpower while its military hardware is perennially stationed in the Gulf.
Xi is ideologically driven, whereas the current American administration is essentially an incoherent demagoguery. My Honours thesis was largely accurate until the second Trump administration. I argued that America had returned to a neorealist posture aiming to contain China like they had during the Cold War, yet concluded that comparisons to the Cold War were historically inaccurate. However, despite this inaccuracy, I predicted that such nomenclature would stick as a lazy heuristic if repeated enough. Where I have been wrong, however, is that I argued that America would remain the bastion of the neoliberal rule-based international order. Instead, it presently ignores international law, praises dictators, bullies allies, and has become an unreliable ally unless you are Israel.
China is becoming more assertive on the world stage under Xi’s ideological tutelage. This is made easier when America withdraws from international institutions that it created. It is made even easier when America is led by a capricious man without a coherent ideology other than appeasing his own ego. Considering Rudd’s book, current ambassadorship, and current geopolitical tensions, Rudd has a piercing front row seat into the affairs of both countries. Australia and the West are lucky to have him. However, despite his value, his role as ambassador may be numbered as the Trump administration continues to treat one of their most loyal allies, Australia, with contempt.
I have started a Substack where I’ll be posting my reviews alongside contemporary political analyses. Full reviews will still go on Goodreads, but if you enjoy my writing, feel free to subscribe. It is free, and you do not need an account to sign up.
The url for my substack is here: https://callumscolumn.substack.com/
I read the shorter version, which comprises chapters 1, 3, 4, 14, 15, and 16. I did this because I had already studied Xi Jinping Thought during my Honours thesis. These chapters outline Rudd’s thesis on Xi’s ideology and how it underpins everything China does. It begins by providing a historical overview of ideological development in China over the millennia with a focus on the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) era. It then pivots to analysing how this is shaping contemporary China and what the contours of Chinese domestic and international affairs will look like in a post-Xi world. This book is academically written, which may deter some readers.
Xi believes in historical and dialectical materialism, whereby contradictory forces of the capitalist West will lead to its inevitable fall. He has also seen the contradictions of the Deng-Jiang-Hu reform and opening period that underscored dramatic economic growth, yet concomitant inequality and diffusion of power away from the CCP. The CCP must once more own the means of production. Moreover, he has begun the Sinification of Marxism to meet traditional values of Chinese culture, particularly by returning China to the Middle Kingdom status it held prior to the century of humiliation.
Although insightful, Rudd’s scholarship was not particularly novel or revisionist. This was surprising considering that the purpose of a PhD is to generate original knowledge to a specialist subject area. Interestingly, some of Rudd’s conclusions echo ideas I explored in my Honours thesis, How the ideational underpinnings of the [first] Trump Administration may have been causing a “New Cold War” with a rising China. That thesis was written four years ago. My findings were underpinned by scholarship that was available at the time. What distinguishes Rudd from the scholars I relied on during my studies is that, having written his work four years later, he had access to a broader collection of Xi Jinping’s speeches.
Despite this criticism, Rudd will play a pivotal role for Australia and international relations theorists as we navigate the implosion of the American-led world order. I write this as Iran and Israel have tentatively agreed to an American-sponsored ceasefire. Although Iran and China have close ties, the latter has done little in the latest eruption of war in the Middle East. This has two causes, one practical and the other ideological. First, China does not have the wherewithal nor desire to intervene in foreign wars. Second, China under Xi is focused on expanding their power in the Pacific, including plans to one day retake Taiwan.
China’s rise has gone largely unimpeded due to America’s recent ideological incoherence and strategic distraction. Successive administrations have been distracted by quagmires in the Middle East. Bush began shifting American attention more to China prior to being bogged down in Afghanistan and then Iraq. Obama wanted to pivot to Asia, but Middle Eastern wars continued to rage, and new ones emerged. There was a slight reprieve during the first Trump administration, which was reversed under the Biden administration as new wars erupted post-October 7, with America’s bombing of Iran’s nuclear sites being the latest chapter in this saga. How can America prepare for war with a superpower while its military hardware is perennially stationed in the Gulf.
Xi is ideologically driven, whereas the current American administration is essentially an incoherent demagoguery. My Honours thesis was largely accurate until the second Trump administration. I argued that America had returned to a neorealist posture aiming to contain China like they had during the Cold War, yet concluded that comparisons to the Cold War were historically inaccurate. However, despite this inaccuracy, I predicted that such nomenclature would stick as a lazy heuristic if repeated enough. Where I have been wrong, however, is that I argued that America would remain the bastion of the neoliberal rule-based international order. Instead, it presently ignores international law, praises dictators, bullies allies, and has become an unreliable ally unless you are Israel.
China is becoming more assertive on the world stage under Xi’s ideological tutelage. This is made easier when America withdraws from international institutions that it created. It is made even easier when America is led by a capricious man without a coherent ideology other than appeasing his own ego. Considering Rudd’s book, current ambassadorship, and current geopolitical tensions, Rudd has a piercing front row seat into the affairs of both countries. Australia and the West are lucky to have him. However, despite his value, his role as ambassador may be numbered as the Trump administration continues to treat one of their most loyal allies, Australia, with contempt.
I have started a Substack where I’ll be posting my reviews alongside contemporary political analyses. Full reviews will still go on Goodreads, but if you enjoy my writing, feel free to subscribe. It is free, and you do not need an account to sign up.
The url for my substack is here: https://callumscolumn.substack.com/
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July 21, 2025Basically Xi Jinping really believes in Marxism-Leninism (with Chinese Characteristics of course) instead of just faking it or being agnostic about the subject. Just read the recommended chapters no need to slog through this as its just his PhD thesis. The Avoidable War is the more interesting title by him.
December 3, 2024
The arguments are nothing novel, Rudd is predominantly pulling large swaths of text from Xi's speeches and summarizing them in a sentence or two, which is something any college student can do. Honestly reads like an overly long Foreign Affairs monthly essay.
April 24, 2025
En helt ny luke er åpnet i hjernen min. Fantastisk, Xi, Kina og denne boken om dem.
June 22, 2025
Do yourself a favour and just read Avoidable War, thoroughly enjoyed that, but this was very very boring. I'm clearly not the target audience but much of this is basically impenetrable jargon that I just found mind numbing. Should have taken Rudd's own advice in the opening chapter and just read his selection of 4 chapters rather than slogging through the whole thing
November 3, 2024
试图从意识形态出发解释一切，是很好的思路，但可能并非是真实发生的。ccp始终是一个实用主义政党，马氏意识形态从上到下基本没有人相信。这套落后，腐朽，自欺欺人的话语体系，只是文字游戏罢了。另外，很多事情其实跟意识形态没关系，例如，14年强调文化，是因为他们刚开始插手社会治理，从文化领域切入；后来一系列新造的经济词汇也只是经济夺权的产物而已。24-89
April 27, 2025
In On Xi Jinping, former Prime Minister Kevin Rudd provides a comprehensive analysis of the political and ideological motivations of China's enigmatic leader. Rudd argues that President Xi, unlike his reformist predecessors, is turning China sharply toward a stricter, ideologically rooted form of politics. Through analysis of official CCP documents, speeches, and literature, Rudd posits that Xi is simultaneously moving China further to the left economically (Marxist) and ideologically (Leninist), while shifting further to the right (nationalist) in terms of foreign policy.
Whether these drastic shifts are truly based on deeply held ideological beliefs or are merely a pragmatic next step in a long-term plan laid out by leaders past remains open to debate. However, Rudd believes that Xi really means what he says, and that it would be foolish to dismiss his words as mere rhetoric.
From a personal standpoint, as someone without a strong background in the study of China or politics in general, this book served as an edifying primer on President Xi's path to power, his long-term goals, and his vision for the future of a once-great power (possibly soon to be great again). That said, readers should approach this book with a strong interest in the subject, as Rudd is methodical and thorough in his assessment, sparing none of the finer, and sometimes tedious, details. I occasionally found myself having to push through much of the dry economic analysis and noticed that Rudd tends to repeat himself to emphasize key points.
Despite this, there is much that I found interesting, particularly the latter part of the book, which takes on a more speculative rather than historical tone as it explores the future of China under Xi’s leadership. Will China continue to become more ideologically extreme in response to external pressures, or might it return to a more centrist path? If the aging Xi manages to hold on to power long enough for the younger, more patriotic, and enthusiastic generation to step into positions of authority, "Xi Jinping Thought" may continue to dominate for decades to come.
Whatever your view of Xi Jinping’s impact on China's rapid rise, positive or negative, On Xi Jinping makes a clear case that it could not have happened without the ambition and keen political mind of President Xi.
Whether these drastic shifts are truly based on deeply held ideological beliefs or are merely a pragmatic next step in a long-term plan laid out by leaders past remains open to debate. However, Rudd believes that Xi really means what he says, and that it would be foolish to dismiss his words as mere rhetoric.
From a personal standpoint, as someone without a strong background in the study of China or politics in general, this book served as an edifying primer on President Xi's path to power, his long-term goals, and his vision for the future of a once-great power (possibly soon to be great again). That said, readers should approach this book with a strong interest in the subject, as Rudd is methodical and thorough in his assessment, sparing none of the finer, and sometimes tedious, details. I occasionally found myself having to push through much of the dry economic analysis and noticed that Rudd tends to repeat himself to emphasize key points.
Despite this, there is much that I found interesting, particularly the latter part of the book, which takes on a more speculative rather than historical tone as it explores the future of China under Xi’s leadership. Will China continue to become more ideologically extreme in response to external pressures, or might it return to a more centrist path? If the aging Xi manages to hold on to power long enough for the younger, more patriotic, and enthusiastic generation to step into positions of authority, "Xi Jinping Thought" may continue to dominate for decades to come.
Whatever your view of Xi Jinping’s impact on China's rapid rise, positive or negative, On Xi Jinping makes a clear case that it could not have happened without the ambition and keen political mind of President Xi.
March 26, 2025
I was expecting more from Rudd. The book was not bad, it just lacked context and explanation. It focuses strictly on the beliefs and actions of Xi, but it would have been much more illuminating if Rudd had spent more time on explaining the context of his thinking, both in terms of how the Party thought about the needs for a strongman as Xi, and the evolving geopolitical context.
July 10, 2025
Kevin Rudd basically distils Xi Jinping Thought for a Western audience and adds on a lot of the typical things you hear from Western media about China and Xi, discourses about rules based order, China's 'aggressive/assertive' stance, etc etc.
May 13, 2025
This is a very academic book which the author does tell you ahead of time is exactly what it is and so this is really one of the very few books that I got about a third of the way through and then scan through the rest so just not what I was looking for.
July 12, 2025
This biography is certainly a scholarly work, covering just over four hundred pages of text, sixty-five pages of footnotes, over one hundred pages of bibliography, much of it in Chinese and a twenty page index. But I found it difficult to put the book down for very long. I was continually thinking tell me more and where is this leading.
The book is very well organised for non-experts like me. It begins with purpose and its core arguments, continuing through definitions of Chinese core ideological concepts, and presents a historical survey of Chinese ideology. Then it moves subject-by-subject through Xi’s evolving ideology, and its effects on China’s domestic and foreign policy. There are three final chapters dealing with China’s future and China’s future after Xi. The book makes it clear that Xi’s ideology has evolved considerably from Mao, Deng, Jiang and Hu.
It is also clear that Xi is deeply intellectually committed to Marxism and to Leninism ‘with Chinese characteristics’, and he speaks about these theories as being ‘scientific’ and ‘proven effective in the Chinese context’.
Mr Rudd backs up every bit of Xi���s ideology with multiple historical references, usually in the form of published quotations. For example, he documents China’s shift in its foreign policy with quotations from high-ranking diplomats.
On the subject of whether or not China will invade Taiwan, he says that Xi has demanded that the People’s Liberation be ready to do so by 2027, and that he would like to do it by 2032, but that if there is a significant chance of failure, he would delay.
Xi clearly thinks that his political ideology is clearly superior to democracy/capitalism. He has apparently conceded that capitalism is superior for economic growth, because he has reigned in the Chinese private sector, knowing that this would slow economic growth. He is aware that Leninism, which Xi has applied to the running of the Communist Party, and Marxist surveillance of the Chinese people represent a risk of revolution. But surveillance is growing, not shrinking.
Xi argues that Marxism is completely congruent to classical Chinese culture, and he enumerates examples of Chinese culture without seeming to recognise the apparent conflicts between the two. Religious freedom, individual freedom and true justice are clear examples. Unfortunately, Mr Rudd and Mr Xi are not able to debate these points, but perhaps Western diplomats and politicians can do so.
This book is a timely, very welcome, thought-provoking study of an influential, but largely unknown national leader.
The book is very well organised for non-experts like me. It begins with purpose and its core arguments, continuing through definitions of Chinese core ideological concepts, and presents a historical survey of Chinese ideology. Then it moves subject-by-subject through Xi’s evolving ideology, and its effects on China’s domestic and foreign policy. There are three final chapters dealing with China’s future and China’s future after Xi. The book makes it clear that Xi’s ideology has evolved considerably from Mao, Deng, Jiang and Hu.
It is also clear that Xi is deeply intellectually committed to Marxism and to Leninism ‘with Chinese characteristics’, and he speaks about these theories as being ‘scientific’ and ‘proven effective in the Chinese context’.
Mr Rudd backs up every bit of Xi���s ideology with multiple historical references, usually in the form of published quotations. For example, he documents China’s shift in its foreign policy with quotations from high-ranking diplomats.
On the subject of whether or not China will invade Taiwan, he says that Xi has demanded that the People’s Liberation be ready to do so by 2027, and that he would like to do it by 2032, but that if there is a significant chance of failure, he would delay.
Xi clearly thinks that his political ideology is clearly superior to democracy/capitalism. He has apparently conceded that capitalism is superior for economic growth, because he has reigned in the Chinese private sector, knowing that this would slow economic growth. He is aware that Leninism, which Xi has applied to the running of the Communist Party, and Marxist surveillance of the Chinese people represent a risk of revolution. But surveillance is growing, not shrinking.
Xi argues that Marxism is completely congruent to classical Chinese culture, and he enumerates examples of Chinese culture without seeming to recognise the apparent conflicts between the two. Religious freedom, individual freedom and true justice are clear examples. Unfortunately, Mr Rudd and Mr Xi are not able to debate these points, but perhaps Western diplomats and politicians can do so.
This book is a timely, very welcome, thought-provoking study of an influential, but largely unknown national leader.
July 12, 2025
Can China become the world’s leading superpower?
This book dives into Xi Jinping’s mindset and China’s long-term strategy, unfolding in three phases: reclaiming respect, achieving growth… and now, asserting global power.
For years, China stayed in the shadows. Today, it’s stepping into the spotlight—at the UN, in global finance, and in international development.
Its strengths? Strategic vision and the growing retreat of the U.S. as a reliable leader of the free world.
Its weaknesses? A lingering commitment to communist ideology, which stifles innovation and limits anything that isn’t considered “truly Chinese.”
Mind-blowing fact: China is the only civilization that has remained for thousands of years in the same territory with an unbroken cultural identity.
A fascinating read on today’s shifting geopolitics. 📘🌍
This book dives into Xi Jinping’s mindset and China’s long-term strategy, unfolding in three phases: reclaiming respect, achieving growth… and now, asserting global power.
For years, China stayed in the shadows. Today, it’s stepping into the spotlight—at the UN, in global finance, and in international development.
Its strengths? Strategic vision and the growing retreat of the U.S. as a reliable leader of the free world.
Its weaknesses? A lingering commitment to communist ideology, which stifles innovation and limits anything that isn’t considered “truly Chinese.”
Mind-blowing fact: China is the only civilization that has remained for thousands of years in the same territory with an unbroken cultural identity.
A fascinating read on today’s shifting geopolitics. 📘🌍
April 3, 2025
Must read book for any professionals working China issues to better understand the why of the CCP. Mr Rudd brings translated internal Chinese Communist Party documents to support and demonstrate the depth and course of CCP ideology and that ideology’s impact on the observable world. For those who are simply fellow China curious travelers then the books opening chapter recommends a helpful abbreviated reading plan as you may not care about the finer points of Marxist thought. All in all, one of the best and most insightful book I’ve read in China. This plus Kissinger’s On China are a solid foundation to better understand modern China.
December 24, 2024
It`s a decent book, but he offers the same argument from The Avoidable War: The Dangers of a Catastrophic Conflict between the US and Xi Jinping's China that ideology matters for Xi Jinping, without the personal touch from the other book. The order of writing is reversed by comparison with the publication, I think, but these works are too close to each other.
July 21, 2025
Impressive in scope and depth, Rudd has gone to extraordinary lengths to provide a robust discourse analysis of CCP doctrine and Xi Jinping’s own speeches and writing. He draws on a wide pool of data to make a persuasive case that Xi has radically reoriented Chinese domestic and foreign policy around a firm Leninist ideology with power centered indisputably in his own hands. According to Rudd, China is unlikely to deviate from its current path until Xi passes from the scene, and the most dangerous years lie ahead while Xi remains in power.
June 19, 2025
Great analysis of Xi Jinping's leadership. Compares and contrasts his leadership with that is all the other leaders since Mao and concludes that Xi represents a significant change of direction for China, in home affairs and foreign affairs. A break from the past.
The book badly needs a glossary. The acronyms are overwhelming. The notes, however, are very detailed.
The book badly needs a glossary. The acronyms are overwhelming. The notes, however, are very detailed.
August 19, 2025
Length was unnecessary but had some fascinating ideas about China - especially interesting how driven China is by ideology especially in comparison to America. There’s a logic based in historic and science that drives the decision making of China, and its actions are much more complex and thought through than western media paints.
March 1, 2025
Very repetitive
July 10, 2025
comprehensive, well informed, engagingly read by the author
Displaying 1 - 19 of 19 reviews