In Defence of the Enlightenment

by Tzvetan Todorov

This brilliant and concise book from internationally renowned historian Tzvetan Todorov establishes the Enlightenment as the philosophical cornerstone of the modern world and argues that the wisdom of those times is just as relevant today. Although our liberal democracies are the offspring of the Enlightenment, they also illustrate the ways in which its ideas can be distorted and perverted. People living in these democracies today are often baffled by a host of phenomena which they don't know how to judge: globalisation and media omnipotence, state-sponsored torture and lies, moralism and the right of intervention, the domination of economics and the triumph of technology. Is it possible to distinguish between the Enlightenment' legitimate and illegitimate heirs? We cannot learn lessons from the past unless we know how to relate them to the present. In this brilliant and concise book, internationally renowned historian TT shows that what remains relevant to us today of the 18th-century debates is their spirit, as expressed in a number of crucial principles and values. 'It is by criticizing the Enlightenment that we remain faithful to it.'

Genres: Philosophy, Nonfiction, History, Politics, Bulgaria

160 pages, Hardcover

First published January 1, 2006

About the author

In Bulgarian Цветан Тодоров. Todorov was a Franco-Bulgarian historian, philosopher and literary theoretician. Among his most influential works is his theory on the fantastic, the uncanny and marvellous.

Reviews

[Nikos Tsentemeidis · Rating 5 out of 5]

Δηλώνω εντυπωσιασμένος από τον Todorov. Πρόκειται για ένα πνεύμα διαγεύστατο. Μέσα σε ένα βιβλιαράκι 150 σελίδων, ξεδιπλώνει τη σκέψη του, απλά γραμμένη. Θα διαβάσω ό,τι βρω δικό του, όπως θα κάνω και με τον Steiner.

[Al Bità · Rating 5 out of 5]

I don't think I can praise this work highly enough.

In a mere 150 pages, with wide spacing, Todorov examines what we mean by the Enlightenment, what it meant to the people articulating its ideals in the 18th century, and the differing arguments they raised in their discussions and essays on the new ideas arising from the collapse of the Middle Ages, the Renaissance, the rise of science, developments in technology, the Reformation (which resulted in at least a further two types of Christianity (there were already two: East and West)), etc. and the implications of those developments. All of this is done in simple, lucid prose, beautifully rendered by the translator Gila Walker. The modern world is one of the consequences as well.

Some Conservatives, usually of the more extreme type, both secular and religious, advocate openly, or snidely suggest, that the many bad things one can find in today's society have their origins in the Enlightenment. They imply that we need to move away from these corrupting ideas (perhaps they want to return to the 'purity' of the feudal Middle Ages?). Todorov reminds us that such thinkers are grossly mistaken, and that there is much to cherish and hold fast to as a result of the many dissertations provided in the Age of Enlightenment. He also examines modern Enlightenment distortions and their misapplications, such as can be found in scientism, individualism, racial desacralisation, loss of meaning, and wholesale relativism. None of these are conducted in the true spirit of the Enlightenment and its core values, which he examines in five chapters, one each on: autonomy, secularism, truth, humanity and universality. All of these qualities are certainly what we would all characterise as Western values and ideals, and in a sense, without them, we have no real identity.

It is, perhaps, sad that we need to defend these values, but it would be a serious mistake to simply disregard them, or to denigrate them. As Todorov points out at the end, the process of defending these ideals is an interminable one, a task we need to take up willingly every day. This is not to say that there may be dangers in the process — all the more reason for having clear ideas about what we are on about. This little book is a perfect starting point. Read it.

[سلمان · Rating 5 out of 5]

لن تكفيك قراءة واحدة لهذا الكتاب حتى تحقق جلّ الفائدة منه، هذا الكتاب من الكتب التي تقرأ مرارا.
تودوروف يدافع عن التنوير والأنوار التي اتهمت كثيرا بدعمها للأنظمة الشمولية أو حتى مفهوم الديموقراطية الخاطيء.

لمن هذا الكتاب:
لمحبي الفلسفة..وباحثيها....ولمن يؤمن بالعقلانية والتنوير.

دمتم بود.

[Mark · Rating 3 out of 5]

Original review here: http://marklindner.info/blog/2012/03/...

I almost bought this book when it came out in December 2009, but I had read at least one review which was not very positive. I wish I could find whatever I had read to see whether I agree with it. I have tried but I failed.

I have read at least three other Tzetvan Todorov books that I am certain of: Facing the Extreme, Imperfect Garden, and Hope and Memory. I have enjoyed them all, even when I have not entirely agreed with him.

I decided to pick this up now as I am taking a class this semester in Enlightenment Literature, or, more specifically on Anglo-American Enlightenment literature. Todorov focuses on the French Enlightenment, understandably; he has lived in France since 1963. Certainly, a few other thinkers from Germany, England, and America crop up but the vast majority of references are to French thinkers.

I read this book, in essence, twice between 3 February and 5 March 2012. I read a chapter or two and then I went back and reread and took my notes, leapfrogging slightly ahead with my reading over my note taking.

I have decided to count it as a Two-Thirds Book Challenge book as it is directly applicable to my current interests, it is a fairly meaty book for its length, and, as I said, I read it twice.

I wanted to like this book more than I did. It's not bad but it seemed a little narrow-minded, or defensive, perhaps. And, yes, I am fully aware that it is supposed to be a defense; but, there is a fine line between making a defense and being defensive.
Contents:

Introductory Note
1 The Project
2 Rejections and Distortions
3 Autonomy
4 Secularism
5 Truth
6 Humanity
7 Universality
8 The Enlightenment and Europe
A Note of Conclusion
Notes

The physical book (hardbound) is a nice artifact, well edited, no typos, with good margins, but no index.
§ Introductory Note

"... I set out here to outline the key points of Enlightenment thought, without losing sight of our times, in a continual back-and-forth movement between past and present" (2).

§ The Project
Trying to define the Enlightenment project is difficult for two reasons: (1) It "was a period of culmination, recapitulation and synthesis, not one of radical innovation"; and (2) "Enlightenment thinking was formulated by a great many individuals who, far from agreeing with one another, were constantly engaged in bitter discussions, from one country to another and within each country" (3-4).

Three ideas form the basis of the Enlightenment project, according to Todorov:

autonomy
the human end is the purpose of our acts
universality (4-5)

"[W]hat we need today is to re-establish Enlightenment thinking in a way that preserves the past heritage while subjecting it to a critical examination, lucidly assessing it in light of its wanted and unwanted consequences. … [I]t is through criticism that we remain faithful and put its teaching into practice" (23).

§ Rejections and Distortions
Enlightenment thinking was the subject of much criticism, particularly from the civil and church authorities that were being challenged (25). Many criticisms were directed against caricatures of Enlightenment thought, while some simply misread its spirit, Todorov tells us.

But this is one of the weak points of the book; Todorov told us earlier that many different and disparate voices vehemently disagreed about what exactly was the Enlightenment project but throughout the rest of the book he gives us a pretty straightforward account, claiming that such-and-such is the Enlightenment view of each topic that he covers. But it simply is not that easy. While I agree with him in general outline most of the time, the discussions he provides really need to be more complicated and nuanced. Perhaps that would lengthen the account but if one is going to defend the Enlightenment then one should do it well and not use an oversimplified caricature of Enlightenment thought.

I do think he does a decent job of showing how various ideas that pass for a fairly mainstream view of the Enlightenment are actually distortions of it, and how these ideas were often bastardized in the employment of dubious, and much worse, ends.
§ Autonomy
Twofold movement: "a negative movement of liberation from norms imposed from the outside and a positive movement of construction of new norms of our own devising" (41).

Discusses various forms and kinds of autonomy, such as collective vs, individual, of thought, opinion, etc., and its abuses by thinkers such as de Sade. Some of the possible conflicts between demands for collective autonomy and individual autonomy discussed include:

education as indoctrination (50)
economic globalization (51)
international terrorism (51-2)
mass media (53)
influence of fashion / spirit of the age/place (53-5)
public opinion (54-5)
advertising (55)

 § Secularism
Discusses various forms of temporal vs. spiritual power and what exactly secularism is. Other threats discussed are the family, Communism, Nazism and fascism. As Todorov tells us, "The enemies of a secular society are many" (70). Several pages discuss the role of the sacred in a secular society, and it does have one.
§ Truth
Distinguishes between two types of acts and discourses, those that aim for the good and those that aim for truth (77). Also discusses dangers to truth.

"The political life in a republic and the autonomy of its citizens are threatened by two symmetrical opposing dangers: moralism and scientism. Moralism reigns when the good prevails over truth and, under the pressure of the will, facts become malleable materials. Scientism carries the day when values seem to proceed from knowledge and political choices are passed off as scientific deductions" (82-3).

The scientism that arose, and is still with us, was opposed by some Enlightenment thinkers like Montesquieu, Rousseau (85). Some of the dangers of scientism discussed include:

20th-century totalitarianism and the elimination of 'inferior' races and/or reactionary classes (86)
the temptation to rely on 'experts' to formulate moral norms or political objectives (86)
the sociobiological' project (86)
heterogeneity in the paths to knowledge (87-8).

Moralism is, of course, much older than the Enlightenment and its dangers are also discussed.

Todorov writes, "Truth cannot dictate the good but neither should it be subjugated to it. Scientism and moralism are both alien to the spirit of the Enlightenment. But a third danger exists, and that is that the very notion of truth be considered irrelevant. … [The challenge to truth in totalitarian regimes] is that the very distinction between truth and falsehood, between truth and fiction, became superfluous in light of the purely pragmatic considerations of usefulness and convenience" (91-2)

He then goes on to show several examples in the US where truth is subjugated to "usefulness and convenience" in the very late 20th-century/early 21st (92-4). We would do well to think about these kinds of issues. And, yes, he slams present day France repeatedly throughout the book, too.
§ Humanity
Discusses how the shift of the human to the center was practically Copernican; "Not surprisingly this reversal elicited strong opposition from those who defended the existing hierarchy, from Bonald to John Paul II" (103).

de Sade is again mentioned in this chapter for his distortions of Enlightenment views.
§ Universality
Discusses equality and human rights, along with challenges to them such as the death penalty, political correctness, and relativism.
§ The Enlightenment and Europe
Discusses why the Enlightenment happened where and when it did considering that none of its ideas were particularly new, and some went back thousands of years.

"The lesson of the Enlightenment consists in saying that plurality can give rise to a new unity in at least three ways: it encourages tolerance through emulation; it develops and protected a critical spirit; and it facilitates self-detachment, which leads to a superior integration of the self and the other" (143-44)

§ A Note of Conclusion
On why the Enlightenment still holds relevance today:

"The reason for its topicality is twofold: we are all children of the Enlightenment, even when we attack it; at the same time, the ills fought by the spirit of the Enlightenment turned out to be more resistant than eighteenth-century theorists thought. They have grown even more numerous. The traditional adversaries of the Enlightenment -- obscurantism, arbitrary authority and fanaticism -- are like the heads of the Hydra that keep growing back as they are cut. This is because they draw their strength from characteristics of human beings and societies that are as ineradicable as the desire for autonomy and dialogue. … Added to this are modern distortions of the Enlightenment, in the form of scientism, individualism, radical desacralization, loss of meaning and wholesale relativism, to name a few" (149-50).

The Enlightenment may be history but it is still extremely relevant today. Enlightenment thinking was highly complex, and it was disputed by those within and without the project. It deserves not to be oversimplified.

This is a decent book and it was worth reading, but it is flawed by simplification where there should have been complexity.

[Emma Sea · Rating 3 out of 5]

3.5 stars. More a Beginner's Guide to the Enlightenment than anything else. I was hoping it would directly engage with specific aspects of contemporary culture, but it was broader and more general in scope, and aimed at a historical overview of Enlightenment philosophies. Not a waste reading it, by any means, but not what I was hoping for.

The traditional adversaries of the Enlightenment – obscurantism, arbitrary authority and fanaticism – are like the heads of the Hydra that keep growing back as they are cut. This is because they draw their strength from characteristics of human beings and societies that are as ineradicable as the desire for autonomy and dialogue. The age of maturity that past authors were hoping would come seems not to be the destiny of humankind: humanity is condemned to seek truth rather than possess it. This would be the vocation of our species: to pick up the task of enlightenment with each new day, knowing that it is interminable.(loc 1326-1336)

[Elector Reseña · Rating 4 out of 5]

Son 4'5 estrellas en realidad. De manera amena hace un repaso por los principales pilares del pensamiento ilustrado. Creo que, de forma acertada, señala los puntos más importantes del debate y muestra la base de los dilemas ideológicos que dividen el espectro político actual.
Repasa ideas de Rousseau, Voltaire, Condorcet o Beccaria, trayendolas a colación oportunamente. Y todo en menos de 200 páginas.
Me lo compraré para tenerlo en casa.

[Jumanah · Rating 4 out of 5]

يقول تودوروف:
"ظهرت مجموعة من التيارات المعاصرة حولت مكتسبات الأنوار عن وجهتها الحقيقية، تيارات من بين مسمياتها العلموية والفردانية والدعوة إلى شطب الراديكالي للمقدس والقول بفقدان المعنى والنسبية المعممة"

روح الأنوار مساهمة فكرية نقدية لإساءة استعمال تلك المفاهيم العقلانية، وموقف الانسان نحو العقلانية بعد مضي ثورة التنوير. الأنور -يقصد بها العقلانية- مشروع قائم عبر الأزمان، والثقافات، ولا تقتصر على عقيدة بل انها تتجاوز العقائد وتقام بها أو معها أو جانبها أو بغض النظر عنها حسب الفرد وبيئته وظروفها. يرى تودوروف أن مشروع الأنوار قائمة على ثلاثة أفكار: الإستقلالية، الغائية الإنسانية لأفعالنا، والكونية. .
يطرح المؤلف نقده بإتزان قلما نجده اليوم في زمن تطرف الرأي واضمحلال المناطق الرمادية بين الأسود والأبيض فقط. أكثر ما عجبني توجه المؤلف نحو المعنى وإدراكه بأن العقلانية ليست غاية بل هي آداة نعمل على تطورها وتطوير توظيفها عبر الزمن ولا توضع محل القداسة، أعني أن نستبدل مقدس بمقدس آخر كإستبدال الله بالعقل وهكذا، فيقول:

"الحلم بوصول البشرية إلى سن الرشد الذي كان من أماني كتاب الأمس فهو فيما يبدو غير مدرج في مصير الإنسانية. فقدر هذه الإنسانية هو أن تظل تبحث عن الحقيقة عوضًا عن امتلاكها."

أخيرًا، اهتمامه بالنقد البناء وخلل الفكر الديمقراطية جدير بإلاهتمام والقراءة

[Walter · Rating 4 out of 5]

Quando falamos de Iluminismo, imaginamo-nos aos Enciclopedistas (e Kant) e sua sede insaciável por situar ao mundo, por primeira vez na história, no caminho da racionalidade. Lembramos logo de Voltaire e sua crítica à religião, a Diderot e a sede por controlar da natureza, a Kant e sua lógica radical etc. Entretanto, Todorov, em O espírito das Luzes, explica que o movimento das Luzes não foi tão heterogêneo assim.

Toda era, por mais restrita que esteja no espaço e no tempo, assume várias perspectivas. Reduzi-las a uma só óptica é sinônimo de perder a magia que a cosmovisão das ciências humanas têm o poder de atribuir-se como metodologia. Sendo assim, o formalista russo tenta explicar, por um lado, que o Iluminismo foi mais que racionalidade e rechaço à mística; e por outro, que o legado das Luzes em ocidente nos trouxe muitos problemas, mas outras tanta resoluções que antes do XVIII pareciam utópicas.

Recomendado!

[حسين كاظم · Rating 3 out of 5]

الكتاب جميل بحد ذاته، يمازج بين قيم عصر التنوير وما حل بها في عصرنا الآن ويناقش علاقتنا بها، أو ربما "علاقة الغرب وأوروبا بها" بشكل أدق. لولا الترجمة البائسة التافهة، الركيكة والمليئة بالأخطاء الإملائية والترقيمية، لكان الكتاب أفضل بكثير مما هو عليه الآن! أتمنى أن يترجمه مترجم آخر أكثر تمكنا، وأن تدقق في الترجمة وجودتها أكثر دار النشر مستقبلا.

[Outmane · Rating 2 out of 5]

Do not let the 2 stars throw you off. I picked it up in the hope of getting a more elaborated introduction on the age of Enlightenment; and I was quite satisfied while reading the first 40 pages. But then the way the author tackled some subjects such as globalization and capital punishment was too simplistic to my taste and the information provided was somehow platitudinous, save when he quoted and commented on some Enlightenment philosophers such as Rousseau and Condorcet

[Sara Abdulaziz · Rating 5 out of 5]

يصف تودوروف الأنوار في آخر هذا الكتاب بأنها لم تعد اتجاهًا فكريًا، وإنما موقفًا من العالم، وأرى بأنه قد تحدث عنها في مجمل الكتاب بوصفها كذلك.

عظيم!

[Angelo Tenfen Nicoladeli · Rating 5 out of 5]

Achei o livro na biblioteca por acaso em uma busca aleatórica. Gostei bastante, foi de grande ajuda pro meu tcc. Direto e bem escrito.

[Jayaprakash Satyamurthy · Rating 4 out of 5]

Not a perfect book - Todorov sets up easily-dismissed strawman versions of the internet's potential (and actual) impact on human co-operation and the space program's relevance to our fate as a species. There's also a sense that his vision of Enlightenment thinking is so subtle as to be almost nebulous - it's not the radical desacralisation and scientism of Dawkins et. al., nor the radical relativism of post-modernism, just as much as it isn't the pursuit of theocracy or autocracy, but I think is to the good, as I'll explain in a moment. He makes an important distinction between societies that uphold the common good and the general good - the former leading to some form of totalitarianism while the latter necessarily embraces diversity. In his conclusion he points out that 'the fate of humanity is not to find truth, but to pursue it', and this is as compelling an argument as any not to enshrine a rigid set of ideals or ideas as our guiding light, but to imbibe the spirit of open-minded, clear-thinking questing as individuals and as a species. There are certain basic values that we are to be guided by - Todorov rejects the Sadeian notion of the individual as a sort of monad, adrift in a hostile world, pointing out that we are embedded in a web of relationships without which we could not exist. However, there is no privileged source for these values or for answers to the many social, economic, political and moral questions that face us. Todorov makes the case that a certain bent of mind, identified with the Enlightenment, can give us a way to negotiate these challenges without resorting to the kind of totalitarian or Manichean policies that made the 20th century such a minefield and seem likely to do the same for the 21st.

A useful primer on its subject, not without limitations and contentious claims, but all in all an even-handed, sane breath of fresh air.

[Pajtim Zeqiri · Rating 4 out of 5]

This book is a relatively easy reading and a very good defense of the enlightenment idea(s). According to Todorov, enlightenment is not a comprehensive or a single project as it is often proclaimed to be. Enlightenment is rationalist and empiricist, emphasizing universality and particularity, it is a more open debate rather than an achieved consensus. In other words, it is an attack on how the society was structured, and that religious institutions or any other object aren't holistic, what is holistic is individual autonomy. The well-being of the individual is the center of how society must be structured; not transcendental commitments.


I personally agree with most of the Enlightenment notions, however, I have some reservations when it comes to the notion of equal rights for all under the same law. I think that in the post-modern world, nation-states are no longer homogeneous entities but very diverse composed with so many national minorities, indigenous people or immigrants. These different groups have different needs, and it is believed that state institutions and laws are not neutral but rather representing the majorities interests, and if we call for equal rights under the same law, it means that we have to obey the laws of the dominant majority without paying attention to the minority's interests, or how they perceive what is the good life. By not considering that fact we are undermining the most vital feature of enlightenment itself; individual autonomy. Therefore, many marginalized groups are striving for the recognition of group rights since only individual rights are not sufficient to address these needs.

[Aron · Rating 5 out of 5]

A very short, dense, yet highly readable book that is well worth picking up. As the title implies, this is not an in-depth exposition or analysis of enlightenment philosophy. Rather it is a polemic - an argument for the importance of enlightenment ideas in the world today. Along the way Todorov provides many original, perhaps provocative and always thought provoking insights into what enlightenment philosophy really means, along with a litany of criticisms of the enlightenment to which he provides a vigorous response. Maybe I enjoyed this book so much precisely because Todorov provides such a compelling case for much of what I believe and articulates it so well. But considering how central the enlightenment is in modern discourse, I would recommend this book to anyone with a modicum of curiosity about contemporary political and moral thinking.

Side note: I heard an interview with Todorov on Philosophy Bites which got me interested in the book. When I went to find it, I was shocked to discover I had to order this from Amazon UK - for some bizarre reason it's not available in US.

[Dave Powell]

A very enjoyable, and very quotable short book. I dont remember being taught about the enlightenment in school (to be honest i wasnt paying much attention) but what the enlightenment gave us in terms of critical thought and the freedom to express those thoughts should be a key part of our education.

The importance of a plurality of ideas was something i hadn't considered before - free thinking can only really exist when people are thinking different things. I'm probably not doing the book justice here so i'll leave you with a couple of quotes:

"Humanity is condemned to seek truth rather than possess it"

"Eloquence of speech should not be mistaken for accuracy of thought"

And one final one from Voltaire :

"The best citizen is the one who contributes to the happiness of the world"

A very accessible book for anyone who is interested in finding out more about enlightenment ideas.

[Gabriel Llagostera · Rating 4 out of 5]

Excelente análisis de una forma de ver el mundo y su conexión con el presente. Todorov escribe fácil, permite que cualquier persona pueda leer y entender el libro. Lo que criticaría es que es demasiado laudatorio, demasiado propagandístico; faltó una visión crítica del movimiento.

[Karlo]

Zanimljivo djelo, u vezi čijeg bih hrv. izdanja htio samo napomenuti da je zanimljivo na kakav način još više dovodi do izražaja duh kojim je i sam autor bio nadahnut, tj. isticanje svega i svačega kao čimbenika koji su pogodovali tome da se prosvjetiteljstvo razvije baš na tlu zapadne Europe, osim, dakako, kršćanstva. Ono je tu samo onako usput dalo doprinos, svojim podjelama više negoli svojom biti, jer tobože je tek prosvjetiteljstvo unijelo u svijet ideju o jednakom dostojanstvu svih ljudi.
Nego, čime to hrv. izdanje (2015.) pojačava taj dojam? Eto, na str. 99 imamo navod iz djela Pierrea Baylea, gdje on komentira progone čiji su se provoditelji nadahnjivali, kaže, tekstom iz Lukina evanđelja. Sljedeći paragraf je citat sa str. 99:
*"Gospodar reče sluzi: 'Iziđi na putove i među ograde i natjeraj svijet da dođe da mi se napuni kuća'. Tucite, bičujte, zatvarajte, ubijajte sve one koji su tvrdoglavi; otmite im žene i djecu: sve je to dobro kad se primjenjuje za ostvarenje mog cilja; u drugim okolnostima to bi bili strahotni zločini."*
Ne znam postoje li u franc. izvorniku još jedni navodnici koji bi uokvirivali retke iz evanđelja (od "Gospodar reče" do "napuni kuća"), no prevoditelj je, eto, usporedio navedeno s Biblijom iz 1976. (KS) te tako u fusnoti imamo njegovu opasku: "drugi dio navoda izbačen u izdanju iz 1976." Kako to okarakterizirati doli riječju "tragikomično"? Nema veze što je drugi dio navoda apsolutno stran cjelini teksta koji donosi evanđelist. Nema veze ni što se sve skupa moglo usporediti s još pokojim stranim prijevodom pa vidjeti nisu li oni možda "sačuvali" to tobožnje mjesto. Tako da, eto, takav pristup djelu koje je, htjeli mi to priznati ili ne, nosivi stup zapadne civilizacije, još više ističe taj duh... prosvjetiteljstva.

[Yupa · Rating 3 out of 5]

Tre stelle per l'impegno nel difendere (senza tacerne le ombre) una tradizione, quella dell'Illuminismo, oggi assediata da integralismi, fanatismi, intolleranze, identitarismi e irrazionalismi emotivi, a destra come a sinistra dello spettro politico.
Particolarmente benvenute e apprezzate la difesa della libertà di parola e l'esigenza che la verità storica sia stabilita dal confronto tra i cittadini e non da parlamenti e tribunali (vedi il dibattito/polemica sulle leggi contro i negazionismi, ecc.)
Il libro non raggiunge la quarta stellina per le eccessive semplificazioni, specie nella prima parte del libro. Todorov è uno storico delle idee e della cultura e non un filosofo, e questo, ahimé, si sente.

[Carlos Puig · Rating 5 out of 5]

Todorov realiza una síntesis muy clara, precisa y didáctica de las pricipales ideas de la Ilustración, subrayando su importancia para la convivencia y el fortalecimiento de las sociedades democráticas. También señala deformaciones o tergiversaciones que se han llevado a cabo del pemsamiento ilustrado. Tal vez peca de cierto optimismo o ingenuidad cuando habla de Europa y su estrecho vínculo con los principios humanistas que emanan de la Ilustración. Hay matices que quizás faltan en esa evaluación. Pero en líneas generales, es un ensayo que nos recuerda ideas, principios y actitudes que nos permiten orientarnos hacia la búsqueda de una mejor sociedad.

[Kin · Rating 5 out of 5]

เยี่ยมมาก โทโดรอฟสรุปว่าอะไรกันแน่คือมรดกของยุคเรืองปัญญา และอธิบายความซับซ้อนของการสรุปประเด็นนี้ได้สนุกมาก แต่ที่คิดว่าน่าสนใจเป็นพิเศษคือบทท้ายๆ ที่พยายามอธิบายว่าทำไมถึงเป็นยุโรป ทั้งๆ ที่คุณค่ามากมายในยุคเรืองปัญญาต่างก็เป็นสิ่งที่เคยปรากฏและต่อมาปรากฏได้ทั่วทุกมุมโลก ปัจจัยหนึ่งที่ยกมาอธิบายคือปฏิสัมพันธ์ทางการค้าภายในภูมิภาคซึ่งนำไปสู่การเดินทาง แลกเปลี่ยน และถกเถียงทางวัฒนธรรมโดยไม่มีคนกลุ่มใดกลุ่มหนึ่งสามารถครอบงำกลุ่มอื่นๆ ได้ ซึ่งก็ดูแตกต่างจาก ปวศ ของภูมิภาคอื่นอย่างชัดเจน

[Ángel · Rating 3 out of 5]

Fue para una asignatura de clase. Igualmente me pareció muy interesante aunque difiera con el autor en algunas de sus opiniones. En general está bien. Me gustaría releerlo en un futuro sin la presión de que sea para una asignatura, para poder leerlo con más calma y poder profundizar en algunos de sus conceptos.

[Turki · Rating 4 out of 5]

سأعود ..
عمل ممتع!

[Athary · Rating 5 out of 5]

‏القراءه لـ تودوروف مشاكسه و رائعه .. ٥/٥ ⭐️

[Mike · Rating 5 out of 5]

Great read, love this book and how relevant it still is today.

[Elisa Maimonte · Rating 3 out of 5]

3.5 ⭐

[Honorato Victor Hugo · Rating 5 out of 5]

Excelente libro, de muy fácil lectura. Muy ameno.

[Kevin Prados Garcia · Rating 5 out of 5]

Todorov no falla!

[laura ᥫ᭡。 · Rating 4 out of 5]

this ate i’m afraid

[Jacopo · Rating 3 out of 5]

Court, concis et ... éclairant ;-)