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This was the "glossary thread for the book - Ghost on the Throne: The Death of Alexander the Great and the War for Crown and Empire by James Romm. This is a Spoiler Thread.

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Alexander the Great



Alexander III of Macedon (Greek: Αλέξανδρος Γʹ ὁ Μακεδών, Aléxandros III ho Makedȏn; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great (Greek: Ἀλέξανδρος ὁ Μέγας, Aléxandros ho Mégas), was a king (basileus) of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedon and a member of the Argead dynasty. He was born in Pella in 356 BC and succeeded his father Philip II to the throne at the age of 20. He spent most of his ruling years on an unprecedented military campaign through western Asia and northeast Africa, and by the age of thirty, he had created one of the largest empires of the ancient world, stretching from Greece to northwestern India. He was undefeated in battle and is widely considered one of history's most successful military commanders.

During his youth, Alexander was tutored by Aristotle until age 16. After Philip's assassination in 336 BC, he succeeded his father to the throne and inherited a strong kingdom and an experienced army. Alexander was awarded the generalship of Greece and used this authority to launch his father's pan-Hellenic project to lead the Greeks in the conquest of Persia. In 334 BC, he invaded the Achaemenid Empire (Persian Empire) and began a series of campaigns that lasted 10 years. Following the conquest of Anatolia, Alexander broke the power of Persia in a series of decisive battles, most notably the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. He subsequently overthrew Persian King Darius III and conquered the Achaemenid Empire in its entirety. At that point, his empire stretched from the Adriatic Sea to the Beas River.

Alexander endeavoured to reach the "ends of the world and the Great Outer Sea" and invaded India in 326 BC, winning an important victory over the Pauravas at the Battle of the Hydaspes. He eventually turned back at the demand of his homesick troops, dying in Babylon in 323 BC, the city that he planned to establish as his capital, without executing a series of planned campaigns that would have begun with an invasion of Arabia. In the years following his death, a series of civil wars tore his empire apart, resulting in the establishment of several states ruled by the Diadochi, Alexander's surviving generals and heirs.

Alexander's legacy includes the cultural diffusion and syncretism which his conquests engendered, such as Greco-Buddhism. He founded some twenty cities that bore his name, most notably Alexandria in Egypt. Alexander's settlement of Greek colonists and the resulting spread of Greek culture in the east resulted in a new Hellenistic civilization, aspects of which were still evident in the traditions of the Byzantine Empire in the mid-15th century AD and the presence of Greek speakers in central and far eastern Anatolia until the Greek genocide of the 1920s. Alexander became legendary as a classical hero in the mould of Achilles, and he features prominently in the history and mythic traditions of both Greek and non-Greek cultures. He was undefeated in battle and became the measure against which military leaders compared themselves. Military academies throughout the world still teach his tactics. He is often ranked among the most influential people in history.

Remainder of article: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alexand...

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Ancient Macedonia



Macedonia, ancient kingdom centred on the plain in the northeastern corner of the Greek peninsula, at the head of the Gulf of Thérmai. In the 4th century bce it achieved hegemony over Greece and conquered lands as far east as the Indus River, establishing a short-lived empire that introduced the Hellenistic Age of ancient Greek civilization.

The cultural links of prehistoric Macedonia were mainly with Greece and Anatolia. A people who called themselves Macedonians are known from about 700 bce, when they pushed eastward from their home on the Haliacmon (Aliákmon) River under the leadership of King Perdiccas I and his successors. The origin and identity of this people are much debated and are at the centre of a heated modern dispute between those who argue that this people should be considered ethnically Greek and those who argue that they were not Greek or that their origin and identity cannot be determined. This dispute hinges in part on the question of whether this people spoke a form of Greek before the 5th century bce; it is known, however, that by the 5th century bce the Macedonian elite had adopted a form of ancient Greek and had also forged a unified kingdom. Athenian control of the coastal regions forced Macedonian rulers to concentrate on bringing the uplands and plains of Macedonia under their sway—a task finally achieved by their king Amyntas III (reigned c. 393–370/369 bce).

Two of Amyntas’s sons, Alexander II and Perdiccas III, reigned only briefly. Amyntas’s third son, Philip II, assumed control in the name of Perdiccas’s infant heir, but, having restored order, he made himself king (reigned 359–336) and raised Macedonia to a predominant position in Greece.

Philip’s son Alexander III (Alexander the Great; reigned 336–323) overthrew the Achaemenian (Persian) Empire and expanded Macedonia’s dominion to the Nile and Indus rivers. On Alexander’s death at Babylon his generals divided up the satrapies (provinces) of his empire and used them as bases in a struggle to acquire the whole. From 321 to 301 warfare was almost continual. Macedonia itself remained the heart of the empire, and its possession (along with the control of Greece) was keenly contested. Antipater (Alexander’s regent in Europe) and his son Cassander managed to retain control of Macedonia and Greece until Cassander’s death (297), which threw Macedonia into civil war. After a six-year rule (294–288) by Demetrius I Poliorcetes, Macedonia again fell into a state of internal confusion, intensified by Galatian marauders from the north. In 277 Antigonus II Gonatas, the capable son of Demetrius, repulsed the Galatians and was hailed as king by the Macedonian army. Under him the country achieved a stable monarchy—the Antigonid dynasty, which ruled Macedonia from 277 to 168.

Under Philip V (reigned 221–179) and his son Perseus (reigned 179–168), Macedonia clashed with Rome and lost. Under Roman control Macedonia at first (168–146) formed four independent republics without common bonds. In 146, however, it became a Roman province with the four sections as administrative units. Macedonia remained the bulwark of Greece, and the northern frontiers saw frequent campaigning against neighbouring tribes. Toward 400 ce it was divided into the provinces of Macedonia and Macedonia secunda, within the diocese of Moesia.

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Alexander the Great timeline



356 B.C.

Alexander born in Pella. The exact date in unknown, but probably either 20 or 26 July.
Philip captures Potidaea.
Parmenio defeats Paeonians and Illyrians.

354 B.C.

Demosthenes attacks idea of a ‘crusade against Persia’.
Mid-summer: Philip captures Mathone: loses an eye in the battle.

352 B.C.

Artabazus and Memnon refugees with Philip, who now emerges as potential leader of crusade against Persia.

351 B.C.

Philip’s fleet harassing Athenian shipping.
Demosthenes’ First Philippic.

348 B.C.

August: Philip captures Olynthus.
Aeschines’ attempt to unite Greek states against Philip fails.

346 B.C.

March: embassy to Philip from Athens.
Halus besieged by Parmeniio
April: peace of Philocrates ratified.
Second Athenian embassy held up till July.
July: Philip occupies Thermopylae.
August: Philip admitted to seat on Amphictyonic Council, and presides over Pythian Games.
Isocrates publishes Philippus.

344 B.C.

Philip appointed Archon of Thessaly for life.

343 B.C.

Non-aggression pact between Philip and Artaxerxes Ochus.
Trail and acquittal of Aeschines.

343 B.C.

Aristotle invited to Macedonia al Alexander’s tutor.

342 B.C.

Olympia’s brother Alexander succeeds to throne of Epirus with Philip’s backing.

340 B.C.

Congress of Allies meets in Athens.
Demosthenes awarded gold crown at Dionysia.
Alexander left as Regent in Macedonia: his raid on Maedi and the foundation of Alexandropolis.
Philip’s campaign against Perinthus and Byzantium.

339 B.C.

September: Philip occupies Elatea.
Isocrates’ Panathenaicus.

338 ? B.C.

August 2: Battle of Chaeronea.
Alexander among ambassadors to Athens.
Philip marries Attalus’ niece Cleopatra.
Oylmpias and Alexander in exile.

337 B.C.

Spring: Hellenic League convened at Corinth.
Recall of Alexander to Pella.
Autumn: League at Corinth ratifies crusade to against Persia.

336 B.C.

Spring: Parmenoi and Attalus sent to Asia Minor for preliminary
military operations.
June: accession of Darius III Codomannus.
Cleopatra bears Philip a son.
Wedding of Alexander of Epirus to Olympia’s daughter.
Murder of Philip.
Alexander accedes to the throne of Macedonia.
Late summer: Alexander calls meeting of Hellenie League at
Corinth, confirmed as Captain-General of anti-Persian crusade.

335 B.C.

Early spring: Alexander goes north to deal with Thrace and Illyria.
Revolt of Thebes.

334 B.C.

Alexander and the attacking force cross into Asia Minor.
May: Battle of the Granicus.
General reorganization of Greek cities in Asia Minor.
Siege and capture of Miletus.
Autumn: reduction of Halicarnassus.
Alexander advances through Lycia and Pamphylia.

333 B.C.

Alexander’s column moves north to Celaenae and Gordium.
Death of Memnon.
Mustering of Persian forces in Babylon.
Episode of the Gordian Knot.
Alexander marches to Ancyra and thence south to Cilician Gates.
Darius moves westward from Babylon.
September: Alexander reaches Tarsus: his illness there.
Darius crosses the Euphrates.
? Sept.-Oct.: Battle if Issus.
Alexander advances southward though Phoenicia.
Marathus: first peace-offer by Darius.

332 B.C.

? January: submission of Byblos and Sidon.
Siege of Tyre begun.
? June: second peace-offer by Darius refused.
July 29: fall of Tyre.
Sept.-Oct.: Gaza captured.
? November 14: Alexander crowned as Pharaoh at Memphis.

331 B.C.

Early spring: visit to the Oracle of Ammon at Siwah.
? April 7-8: foundation of Alexanderia.
Alexander returns to Tyre.
July-August: Alexander reaches Thapsacus on Euphrates; Darius moves his main forces from Babylon.
September 18: Alexander crosses the Tigris.
Darius’ final peace-offer rejected.
Sept. 30 or Oct. 1: Battle of Gaugamela.
Macedonians advance from Arbela on Babylon, which falls in mid-October.
Revolt of Agis defeated at Megalopolis.
Early December: Alexander occupies Susa unopposed.
Alexander forces Susian Gates.

330 B.C.

? January: Alexander reaches and sacks Perseplis.
? May : burning of temples etc. in Persepols.
Early June: Alexander sets out for Ecbatana.
Darius retreats toward Bactria.
Greek allies dismissed at Ecbatana; Parmenio left behind there, with Harpalus as Treasurer.
Pursuit of Darius renewed, via Caspian Gates.
July; Darius found murdered near Hecatompylus.
Bessus establishes himself as ‘Great King’ in Bactria.
March for Hyrcania begins.
Late August: march to Drangiana.
The ‘conspiracy of Philotas’.
March though Arachosia to Parapamisidae.

329 B.C.

March-April: Alexander crosses Hindu Kush by Khawak Pass.
April-May: Alexander advancing to Bactria; Bessus retreats across the Oxus.
June: Alexander reaches and crosses the Oxus; veterans and
Thessalian volunteers dismissed.
Surrender of Bessus.
Alexander advances to Maracanda.
Revolt of Spitamenes, annihilation of Macedonian detachment
Alexander takes up winter quarters at Zariaspa.
Execution of Bessus.

328 B.C.

Campaign against Spitamenes.
Autumn: murder of Cleitus the Black.
Defeat and death of Spitamenes.

327 B.C.

Spring: capture of the Soghdian Rock.
Alexander’s marriage to Roxane.
Recruitment of 30,000 Perisan ‘Successors’.
The ‘Pages Conspiracy’ and Callisthenes’ end.
Early summer: Alexander recrosses Hindu Kush by Kushan Pass: the invasion of India begins.
Alexander reaches Nysa; the ‘Dionysus episode’.
Capture of Aornos.

326 B.C.

Advance to Taxila.
Battle of the Hydaspes (The Jhelum) against the rajah Porus.
Death of Bucephalas.
? July: Mutiny at the Hyphasis.
Return to the Jhelum: reinforcements move down-river.
Campaign against Brahmin cities: Alexander seriously wounded.

325 B.C.

Revolt in Bactria: 3000 mercenaries loose in Asia.
Alexander reaches Patala, builds harbor and dockyards.
? September: Alexander’s march through Gedrosian Desert.
Defection of Harpalus from Asia Minor to Greece.
The satrapal purge begins.
Nearchus and the fleet reach Harmozia, link up with Alexander at Salmous.
Arrival of Craterus form Drangiana.

324 B.C.

January: Nearches and fleet sent on to Susa.
The episode of Cyrus’ tomb.
Alexander returns to Persepolis.
Move to Susa, long halt there.
Spring: arrival of 30,000 trained Persian ‘Successors’.
The Susa mass-marriages.
March: the Exiles’ Decree and the Deification Decree.
Craterus appointed to succeed Antiparter as Regent, and convoy troops home.
Alexander moves from Susa to Ecbatana.
Death of Hephaestion.

323 B.C.

Assassination of Harpalus in Crete.
Alexander’s Campaign against the Cossaeans and return to Babylon.
Alexander explores Pallacopas Canal; his boat-trip through the marshes.
Arrival of Antipater’s son Cassander to negotiate with Alexander.
May 20/30: Alexander falls ill after a party; and dies on 10/11th June.

(Source: https://vmacedonia.com/history/ancien...)

Olympias



Olympias (Ancient Greek: Ὀλυμπιάς, pronounced [olympiás], c. 375–316 BC) was the daughter of king Neoptolemus I of Epirus, the sister of Alexander I of Epirus, the fourth wife of Philip II, the king of the ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia and the mother of Alexander the Great. She was extremely influential in Alexander's life and was recognized as de facto leader of Macedon during Alexander's conquests. After her son's death, she fought on behalf of Alexander's son Alexander IV, successfully defeating Adea Eurydice. After she was finally defeated by Cassander, his armies refused to execute her, and he finally had to summon family members of those Olympias had previously killed to end her life. According to the 1st century AD biographer, Plutarch, she was a devout member of the orgiastic snake-worshiping cult of Dionysus, and he suggests that she slept with snakes in her bed.

Origin

Olympias was the daughter of Neoptolemus I, king of the Molossians, an ancient Greek tribe in Epirus, and sister of Alexander I. Her family belonged to the Aeacidae, a well-respected family of Epirus, which claimed descent from Neoptolemus, son of Achilles. Apparently, she was originally named Polyxena, as Plutarch mentions in his work Moralia, and changed her name to Myrtale prior to her marriage to Philip II of Macedon as part of her initiation into an unknown mystery cult.

The name Olympias was the third of four names by which she was known. She probably took it as a recognition of Philip's victory in the Olympic Games of 356 BC, the news of which coincided with Alexander's birth (Plut. Alexander 3.8). She was finally named Stratonice, which was probably an epithet attached to Olympias following her victory over Eurydice in 317 BC.

Queen of Macedonia

When I died in 360 BC, his brother Arymbas succeeded him on the Molossian throne. In 358 BC, Arymbas made a treaty with the new king of Macedonia, Philip II, and the Molossians became allies of the Macedonians. The alliance was cemented with a diplomatic marriage between Arymbas' niece, Olympias, and Philip in 357 BC. It made Olympias the queen consort of Macedonia, and Philip the king. Philip had allegedly fallen in love with Olympias when both were initiated into the mysteries of Cabeiri at the Sanctuary of the Great Gods, on the island of Samothrace, though their marriage was largely political in nature.

One year later, in 356 BC, Philip's race horse won in the Olympic Games; for this victory, his wife, who was known then as Myrtale, received the name Olympias. In the summer of the same year, Olympias gave birth to her first child, Alexander. In ancient Greece people believed that the birth of a great man was accompanied by portents. As Plutarch describes, the night before the consummation of their marriage, Olympias dreamed that a thunderbolt fell upon her womb and a great fire was kindled, its flames dispersed all about and then were extinguished. After the marriage Philip dreamed that he put a seal upon his wife's womb, the device of which was the figure of a lion. Aristander's interpretation was that Olympias was pregnant of a son whose nature would be bold and lion-like. Philip and Olympias also had a daughter, Cleopatra, who later married her uncle, Alexander I of Epirus, to further diplomatic ties between Macedonia and Epirus.

According to primary sources, their marriage was very stormy due to Philip's volatility and Olympias' ambition and alleged jealousy, which led to their growing estrangement. Things got more tumultuous in 337 BC when Philip married a noble Macedonian woman, Cleopatra, the niece of Attalus, who was given the name Eurydice by Philip. At a gathering after the marriage, Philip failed to defend Alexander's claim to the Macedonian throne when Attalus threatened his legitimacy, causing great tensions between Philip, Olympias, and Alexander. Olympias went into voluntary exile in Epirus along with Alexander, staying at the Molossian court of her brother Alexander I, who was the king at the time.

In 336 BC, Philip cemented his ties to Alexander I of Epirus by offering him the hand of his and Olympias' daughter Cleopatra in marriage, a fact that led Olympias to further isolation as she could no longer count on her brother's support. However, Philip was murdered by Pausanias, a member of Philip's somatophylakes, his personal bodyguard, while attending the wedding, and Olympias, who returned to Macedonia, was suspected of having countenanced his assassination.

Alexander's reign and the Wars of the Diadochi

After the death of Philip II, Olympias allegedly ordered the execution of Eurydice and her child in order to secure Alexander's position as king of Macedonia. During Alexander's campaigns, she regularly corresponded with him and may have confirmed her son's claim in Egypt that his father was not Philip but Zeus. The relationship between Olympias and Alexander was cordial, but her son tried to keep her away from politics. However, she wielded great influence in Macedonia and caused troubles to Antipater, the regent of the kingdom. In 330 BC, she returned to Epirus and served as a regent to her cousin Aeacides in the Epirote state, as her brother Alexander I had died during a campaign in southern Italy.

After Alexander the Great's death in Babylon in 323 BC, his wife Roxana gave birth to their son named Alexander IV. Alexander IV and with his uncle Philip III Arrhidaeus, the half brother of Alexander the Great who may have been disabled, were subject to the regency of Perdiccas, who tried to strengthen his position through a marriage with Antipater's daughter Nicaea. At the same time, Olympias offered Perdiccas the hand of her and Philip's daughter, Cleopatra. Perdiccas chose Cleopatra, which angered Antipater, who allied himself with several other Diadochi, deposed Perdiccas, and was declared regent, only to die within the year.

Polyperchon succeeded Antipater in 319 BC as regent, but Antipater's son Cassander established Philip II's son Philip III (Arrhidaeus) as king and forced Polyperchon out of Macedonia. He fled to Epirus, taking Roxana and her son Alexander IV with him, who had previously been left in the care of Olympias. At the beginning, Olympias had not been involved in this conflict, but she soon realized that in the case of Cassander's rule, her grandson would lose the crown, so she allied with Polyperchon in 317 BC. The Macedonian soldiers supported her return and the united armies of Polyperchon and Olympias, with the house of Aeacides, invaded Macedonia to drive Cassander out from power.

After winning in battle by convincing the army of Adea Eurydice, the wife of Philip III, to side with her own, Olympias captured and executed the two in October 317 BC. She also captured Cassander's brother and a hundred of his partisans. Cassander soon blockaded and besieged Olympias in Pydna and one of the terms of the capitulation had been that Olympias's life would be saved, but Cassander had decided to execute her, sparing only temporarily the lives of Roxana and Alexander IV (they were executed a few years later in 309 BC). When the fortress of Pydna fell, Cassander ordered Olympias killed, but the soldiers refused to harm the mother of Alexander the Great. In the end, the families of her many victims stoned her to death with the approval of Cassander, who is also said to have denied to her body the rites of burial.

(Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olympias)

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Aristotle



The Greek philosopher Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) made significant and lasting contributions to nearly every aspect of human knowledge, from logic to biology to ethics and aesthetics. Though overshadowed in classical times by the work of his teacher Plato, from late antiquity through the Enlightenment, Aristotle’s surviving writings were incredibly influential. In Arabic philosophy, he was known simply as “The First Teacher”; in the West, he was “The Philosopher.”

Aristotle’s Early Life

Aristotle was born in 384 B.C. in Stagira in northern Greece. Both of his parents were members of traditional medical families, and his father, Nicomachus, served as court physician to King Amyntus III of Macedonia. His parents died while he was young, and he was likely raised at his family’s home in Stagira. At age 17 he was sent to Athens to enroll in Plato's Academy. He spent 20 years as a student and teacher at the school, emerging with both a great respect and a good deal of criticism for his teacher’s theories. Plato’s own later writings, in which he softened some earlier positions, likely bear the mark of repeated discussions with his most gifted student.

When Plato died in 347, control of the Academy passed to his nephew Speusippus. Aristotle left Athens soon after, though it is not clear whether frustrations at the Academy or political difficulties due to his family’s Macedonian connections hastened his exit. He spent five years on the coast of Asia Minor as a guest of former students at Assos and Lesbos. It was here that he undertook his pioneering research into marine biology and married his wife Pythias, with whom he had his only daughter, also named Pythias.

In 342 Aristotle was summoned to Macedonia by King Philip II to tutor his son, the future Alexander the Great—a meeting of great historical figures that, in the words of one modern commentator, “made remarkably little impact on either of them.”

Aristotle and the Lyceum

Aristotle returned to Athens in 335 B.C. As an alien, he couldn’t own property, so he rented space in the Lyceum, a former wrestling school outside the city. Like Plato’s Academy, the Lyceum attracted students from throughout the Greek world and developed a curriculum centered on its founder’s teachings. In accordance with Aristotle’s principle of surveying the writings of others as part of the philosophical process, the Lyceum assembled a collection of manuscripts that comprised one of the world’s first great libraries.

Aristotle’s Works

It was at the Lyceum that Aristotle probably composed most of his approximately 200 works, of which only 31 survive. In style, his known works are dense and almost jumbled, suggesting that they were lecture notes for internal use at his school. The surviving works of Aristotle are grouped into four categories. The “Organon” is a set of writings that provide a logical toolkit for use in any philosophical or scientific investigation. Next come Aristotle’s theoretical works, most famously his treatises on animals (“Parts of Animals,” “Movement of Animals,” etc.), cosmology, the “Physics” (a basic inquiry about the nature of matter and change) and the “Metaphysics” (a quasi-theological investigation of existence itself).

Third are Aristotle’s so-called practical works, notably the “Nicomachean Ethics” and “Politics,” both deep investigations into the nature of human flourishing on the individual, familial and societal levels. Finally, his “Rhetoric” and “Poetics” examine the finished products of human productivity, including what makes for a convincing argument and how a well-wrought tragedy can instill cathartic fear and pity.

The Organon

“The Organon” (Latin for “instrument”) is a series of Aristotle’s works on logic (what he himself would call analytics) put together around 40 B.C. by Andronicus of Rhodes and his followers. The set of six books includes “Categories,” “On Interpretation,” “Prior Analytics,” “Posterior Analytics,” “Topics,” and “On Sophistical Refutations.” The Organon contains Aristotle’s worth on syllogisms (from the Greek syllogismos, or “conclusions”), a form of reasoning in which a conclusion is drawn from two assumed premises. For example, all men are mortal, all Greeks are men, therefore all Greeks are mortal.

Metaphysics

Aristotle’s “Metaphysics,” written quite literally after his “Physics,” studies the nature of existence. He called metaphysics the “first philosophy,” or “wisdom.” His primary area of focus was “being qua being,” which examined what can be said about being based on what it is, not because of any particular qualities it may have. In “Metaphysics,” Aristotle also muses on causation, form, matter and even a logic-based argument for the existence of God.

Rhetoric

To Aristotle, rhetoric is “the faculty of observing in any given case the available means of persuasion.” He identified three main methods of rhetoric: ethos (ethics), pathos (emotional), and logos (logic). He also broke rhetoric into types of speeches: epideictic (ceremonial), forensic (judicial) and deliberative (where the audience is required to reach a verdict). His groundbreaking work in this field earned him the nickname “the father of rhetoric.”

Poetics

Aristotle’s “Poetics” was composed around 330 B.C. and is the earliest extant work of dramatic theory. It is often interpreted as a rebuttal to his teacher Plato’s argument that poetry is morally suspect and should therefore be expunged from a perfect society. Aristotle takes a different approach, analyzing the purpose of poetry. He argues that creative endeavors like poetry and theater provides catharsis, or the beneficial purging of emotions through art.

Aristotle’s Death and Legacy

After the death of Alexander the Great in 323 B.C., anti-Macedonian sentiment again forced Aristotle to flee Athens. He died a little north of the city in 322, of a digestive complaint. He asked to be buried next to his wife, who had died some years before. In his last years he had a relationship with his slave Herpyllis, who bore him Nicomachus, the son for whom his great ethical treatise is named.

Aristotle’s favored students took over the Lyceum, but within a few decades the school’s influence had faded in comparison to the rival Academy. For several generations Aristotle’s works were all but forgotten. The historian Strabo says they were stored for centuries in a moldy cellar in Asia Minor before their rediscovery in the first century B.C., though it is unlikely that these were the only copies.

In 30 B.C. Andronicus of Rhodes grouped and edited Aristotle’s remaining works in what became the basis for all later editions. After the fall of Rome, Aristotle was still read in Byzantium and became well-known in the Islamic world, where thinkers like Avicenna (970-1037), Averroes (1126-1204) and the Jewish scholar Maimonodes (1134-1204) revitalized Aritotle’s logical and scientific precepts.

Aristotle in the Middle Ages and Beyond

In the 13th century, Aristotle was reintroduced to the West through the work of Albertus Magnus and especially Thomas Aquinas, whose brilliant synthesis of Aristotelian and Christian thought provided a bedrock for late medieval Catholic philosophy, theology and science.

Aristotle’s universal influence waned somewhat during the Renaissance and Reformation, as religious and scientific reformers questioned the way the Catholic Church had subsumed his precepts. Scientists like Galileo and Copernicus disproved his geocentric model of the solar system, while anatomists such as William Harvey dismantled many of his biological theories. However, even today, Aristotle’s work remains a significant starting point for any argument in the fields of logic, aesthetics, political theory and ethics.

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Eumenes of Cardia



Eumenes of Cardia (/juːˈmɛniːz/; Greek: Εὐμένης; c. 362 – 316 BC) was a Greek general and satrap. He participated in the Wars of the Diadochi as a supporter of the Macedonian Argead royal house. He was executed after the Battle of Gabiene in 316 BC.

Early career

Eumenes was a native of Cardia in the Thracian Chersonese, although he was suspected to be Scythian. At a very early age, he was employed as a private secretary by Philip II of Macedon and after Philip's death (336 BC) by Alexander the Great, whom he accompanied into Asia. After Alexander's death (323 BC), Eumenes took command of a large body of Greek and Macedonian soldiers fighting in support of Alexander's son, Alexander IV.

Satrap of Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (323-319 BC)

In the ensuing division of the empire in the Partition of Babylon (323 BC), Cappadocia and Paphlagonia were assigned to Eumenes; but as they were not yet subdued, Leonnatus and Antigonus were charged by Perdiccas with securing them for him. Antigonus, however, ignored the order, and Leonnatus vainly attempted to induce Eumenes to accompany him to Europe and share in his far-reaching designs. Eumenes joined Perdiccas, who installed him in Cappadocia.

Battle of the Hellespont (321 BC)

When Craterus and Antipater, having subdued Greece in the Lamian War, determined to pass into Asia and overthrow the power of Perdiccas, their first blow was aimed at Cappadocia. Craterus and Neoptolemus, the satrap of Armenia, were completely defeated by Eumenes in the Battle of the Hellespont in 321. Neoptolemus was killed, and Craterus died of his wounds.

After the death of Perdiccas

After the murder of Perdiccas in Egypt by his own soldiers (320), the Macedonian generals condemned Eumenes to death, assigning Antipater and Antigonus as his executioners. In 319 BC, Antigonus marched his army into Cappadocia and, in a lightning campaign, drove Eumenes to Nora, a strong fortress on the border between Cappadocia and Lycaonia. Here Eumenes held out for more than a year until the death of Antipater threw his opponents into disarray.

The Second War of the Diadochi

Antipater had left the regency to his friend Polyperchon instead of his son Cassander. Cassander, therefore, allied himself with Antigonus, Lysimachus and Ptolemy, while Eumenes allied himself with Polyperchon. He was able to escape from Nora through trickery and, after gathering a small army, he marched into Cilicia where he made an alliance with Antigenes and Teutamos, the commanders of the Macedonian Silver Shields and the Hypaspists. Eventually Eumenes secured control over these men by playing on their loyalty to, and superstitious awe of, Alexander. He used the royal treasury at Kyinda to recruit an army of mercenaries to add to his own troops and the
Macedonians of Antigenes and Teutamos.

In 317 BC, Eumenes left Cilicia and marched into Syria and Phoenicia, and began to raise a naval force on behalf of Polyperchon. When it was ready he sent the fleet west to reinforce Polyperchon, but it was met by Antigonus's fleet off the coast of Cilicia, and the fleet of Eumenes changed sides.

Meanwhile, Antigonus had settled his affairs in Asia Minor and marched east to take out Eumenes before he could do further damage. Eumenes somehow had advance knowledge of this and marched out of Phoenica, through Syria into Mesopotamia, with the idea of gathering support in the upper satrapies.

Eumenes in the East

Eumenes gained the support of Amphimachos, the satrap of Mesopotamia, then marched his army into Northern Babylonia, where he put them into winter quarters. During the winter he negotiated with Seleucus, the satrap of Babylonia, and Peithon, the satrap of Media, seeking their help against Antigonus. Unable to sway Seleucus and Peithon, Eumenes left his winter quarters early and marched on Susa, a major royal treasury, in Susiana. In Susa, Eumenes sent letters to all the satraps to the north and east of Susiana, ordering them in the kings' names to join him with all their forces. When the satraps joined Eumenes he had a considerable force, with which he could look forward with some confidence to doing battle against Antigonus. Eumenes then marched southeastwards into Persia, where he picked up additional reinforcements.

Antigonus, meanwhile, had reached Susa and left Seleucus there to besiege the place, while he himself marched after Eumenes. At the river Kopratas, Eumenes surprised Antigonus during the crossing of the river and killed or captured 4,000 of his men. Antigonus, faced with disaster, decided to abandon the crossing and turned back northward, marching up into Media, threatening the upper satrapies. Eumenes wanted to march westward and cut Antigonus's supply lines, but the satraps refused to abandon their satrapies and forced Eumenes to stay in the east.

In the late summer of 316 BC, Antigonus moved southward again in the hope of bringing Eumenes to battle and ending the war quickly. Eventually, the two armies met in southern Media and fought the indecisive Battle of Paraitakene. Antigonus, whose casualties were more numerous, force marched his army to safety the next night. During the winter of 316-315 BC, Antigonus tried to surprise Eumenes in Persis by marching his army across a desert and catching his enemy off guard; unfortunately, he was observed by some locals who reported it to his opponents. A few days later both armies drew up for battle. The Battle of Gabiene was as indecisive as the previous battle at Parataikene. According to Plutarch and Diodorus, Eumenes had won the battle but lost control of his army's baggage camp thanks to his ally Peucestas' duplicity or incompetence. In addition to all the loot of the Silver Shields (treasure accumulated over 30 years of successful warfare including gold, silver, gems and other booty), the soldiers' women and children were taken and Eumenes' army wished to negotiate their return.

Teutamus, one of their commanders, sent the request to Antigonus who responded by demanding they give him Eumenes. The Silver Shields complied, arrested Eumenes and his officers, and handed them over. The war was thus at an end. Eumenes was placed under guard while Antigonus held a council to ponder his fate. Antigonus, supported by his son Demetrius, was disinclined to kill Eumenes, but most of the council insisted that he execute Eumenes and so it was decided.

Death

Antigonus, according to Plutarch, starved Eumenes for three days, but finally sent an executioner to dispatch him when the time came for him to move his camp. Eumenes' body was given to his friends, to be burnt with honor, and his ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his wife and children.

Legacy

Despite Eumenes' undeniable skills as a general, he never commanded the full allegiance of the Macedonian officers in his army and died as a result. He was an able commander who did his utmost to maintain the unity of Alexander's empire in Asia, but his efforts were frustrated by generals and satraps both nominally under his command and under that of his enemies. Eumenes was hated and despised by many fellow commanders—certainly for his successes and supposedly for his non-Macedonian (in the tribal sense) background and prior office as Royal Secretary. Eumenes has been seen as a tragic figure, a man who seemingly tried to do the right thing but was overcome by a more ruthless enemy and the treachery of his own soldiers.

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eumenes)

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Perdiccas



Perdiccas (Greek: Περδίκκας, Perdikkas; c. 355 BC – 321/320 BC) became a general in Alexander the Great's army and participated in Alexander's campaign against Achaemenid Persia. Following Alexander's death, he rose to become supreme commander of the imperial army and regent for Alexander's half brother and intellectually disabled successor, Philip Arridaeus (Philip III).

He was the first of the Diadochi who fought for control over Alexander's empire but in his attempts to establish a power base and stay in control of the empire, he managed to make enemies of key generals in the Macedonian army, Antipater, Craterus and Antigonus Monophtalmus, who decided to revolt against the regent. In response to this formidable coalition and a provocation from another general, Ptolemy, Perdiccas invaded Egypt, but when the invasion floundered his soldiers revolted and killed him.

Family background

According to Arrian, Perdiccas was a son of the Macedonian nobleman, Orontes, a descendant of the independent princes of the Macedonian province of Orestis. While his actual date of birth is unknown, he would seem to have been of a similar age to Alexander. He had a brother called Alcetas and a sister, Atalantê, who married Attalus.

Hetairos

As the commander of a battalion of the Macedonian phalanx (heavy infantry), Perdiccas distinguished himself during the conquest of Thebes (335 BC), where he was severely wounded. Subsequently, he held an important command in the Indian campaigns of Alexander. In 324 BC, at the nuptials celebrated at Susa, Perdiccas married the daughter of the satrap of Media, a Persian named Atropates. When Hephaestion unexpectedly died the same year, Perdiccas was appointed his successor as commander of the Companion cavalry and chiliarch. As Alexander lay dying on 11 June 323 BC, he gave his ring to Perdiccas.

Diadoch

Following the death of Alexander the Great, his generals met to discuss what should be their next steps. Perdiccas proposed that a final decision wait until Alexander's wife Roxana, who was pregnant, had given birth. If the child was a boy, then Perdiccas proposed that the child would be chosen as the new king. This meant that Perdiccas would be the regent and effectively the ruler of Alexander's empire until the boy was old enough to rule on his own. Despite misgivings amongst the other generals, most accepted Perdiccas' proposal.

However, the infantry commander, Meleager, disagreed with Perdiccas' plans. Meleager argued in favour of Alexander's half brother, Arridaeus, who he considered to be first in line of succession. The infantry supported this proposal with Meleagar's troops willing to fight in favour of Arridaeus.

Regent

Through the Partition of Babylon a compromise was reached under which Perdiccas was to serve as "Regent of the Empire" and supreme commander of the imperial army. Arridaeus and the unborn child of Alexander's wife Roxana (the future Alexander IV of Macedon) were recognized as joint kings. While the general Craterus was officially declared "Guardian of the Royal Family", Perdiccas effectively held this position, as the joint kings were with him in Babylon. Perdiccas soon showed himself intolerant of any rivals, and, acting in the name of the two kings, sought to hold the empire together under his own hand. Alexander the Great's second wife, Stateira, was murdered. Perdiccas had Meleager arrested and murdered.

Perdiccas' authority as regent and his control over the royal family were immediately challenged. Perdiccas appointed Leonnatus, one of Alexander's bodyguards or somatophylakes, as satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia on the western coast of Asia Minor. However, instead of assuming that position, Leonnatus sailed to Macedonia when Alexander's sister, Cleopatra, widow of King Alexander I of Epirus, offered her hand to him. Upon learning of this, in spring 322 BC Perdiccas marched the imperial army towards Asia Minor to reassert his dominance as regent. Perdiccas ordered Leonnatus to appear before him to stand trial for disobedience, but Leonnatus died during the Lamian War before the order reached him.

At around the same time, Cynane, Alexander's half-sister, arranged for her daughter, Eurydice II, to marry the joint king, Arridaeus (Philip III). Fearful of Cynane's influence, Perdiccas ordered his brother Alcetas to murder her. The discontent expressed by the army at the plan to murder her and their respect for Eurydice as a member of royal family persuaded Perdiccas not only to spare her life but to approve of the marriage to Philip III. Despite the marriage, Perdiccas continued to firmly hold control over the affairs of the royal family.

As regent and commander-in-chief, Perdiccas saw it as important that he consolidate Alexander's empire. A key step in achieving this was to conquer Cappadocia which still remained under Persian rule. However, Antigonus I Monophthalmus, the Macedonian satrap of Pamphylia and Lycia, was unwilling to support Perdiccas when in 322 BC Perdiccas successfully invaded Cappadocia. When Perdiccas ordered Antigonus to appear before his court, Antigonus fled to Antipater's court in Macedonia.

To strengthen his control over the empire, Perdiccas agreed to marry Nicaea, the daughter of the satrap of Macedonia, Antipater. However, he broke off the engagement in 322 BC when Olympias, mother of Alexander the Great, offered him the hand of Alexander's full sister Cleopatra. Given the intellectual disability of Philip III and the limited acceptance of the boy, Alexander IV, due to his mother being a Persian, the marriage would have given Perdiccas a claim as Alexander's true successor, not merely as regent.

Civil War and Invasion of Egypt

As a result of these events and actions, Perdiccas earned Antipater's animosity, while Antigonus had reason to fear Perdiccas. Another general, Craterus, was also unhappy at being ignored by Perdiccas despite his important position within the army when Alexander was alive. So Antipater, Craterus and Antigonus agreed to revolt against Perdiccas.

In late 321 BC, Perdiccas intended to send Alexander's body back to Aegae in Macedonia, the traditional place of burial for the Macedonian Royal Family. Arrhidaeus was chosen to escort the body back to Macedonia however, when Alexander's remains were passing through Syria, Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt, was able to bribe the escort and seize the body. Ptolemy brought Alexander's remains back to Egypt where they were housed in the city of Memphis. Perdiccas regarded Ptolemy's action as an unacceptable provocation and decided to invade Egypt.

Perdiccas marched to attack Ptolemy in Egypt but when he reached the most easterly tributary of the Nile near Pelusium, he discovered that the opposite side was garrisoned. In response, he marched upstream to find a suitable point to cross, soon coming across a ford which lead to the cities of Tanis and Avaris on the other side of the Nile. However a fort defended by an Egyptianian force known as the 'Camel's Rampart' inhibited his advance. Perdiccas then ordered his war elephants and Silver Shield infantry to attack. A larger army under Ptolemy arrived, denying Perdiccas an easy victory. Despite this disadvantage, the attack began but Perdiccas was overwhelmed and forced to retreat and search for another crossing. He came across one near Memphis but when he attempted the crossing the water became increasingly deeper and many of his men drowned.

Death

Following what was so far a disastrous campaign. A mutiny broke out amongst Perdiccas' troops, who were disheartened by his failure to make progress in Egypt. Perdiccas was murdered by his officers (Peithon, Antigenes, and Seleucus) some time in either 321 or 320 BC. His officers and the rest of his army defected to Ptolemy.

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Perdiccas)

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Ptolemy I Soter



Ptolemy I Soter (366-282 BCE) was one of the successor kings to the empire of Alexander the Great. He served not only as king of Egypt but also the founder of the Ptolemaic Dynasty, a dynasty which included the infamous Cleopatra VII.

Early Life & Persian Campaign

Ptolemy was a Macedonian nobleman, son of Lagos. Rumors circulated, however, that he was actually the illegitimate son of Alexander’s father Phillip II, a possibility that would have made him Alexander’s half-brother. Although older than Alexander and many of the other generals who followed Alexander into Persia, he still became a close friend, advisor and later one of his seven personal bodyguards. Following Phillips II’s death at the hands of Pausanias, Alexander embarked on his quest to meet, defeat and conquer Darius III and the Persian Empire. Although historians are in disagreement concerning Ptolemy’s role in the Persian campaign, they do agree that he did participate in a number of battles. This disagreement stems from the fact that Ptolemy was also a historian of sorts and his biography of Alexander may have exaggerated his own contributions.

Ptolemy’s name first appears during Alexander’s defeat of Memnon, the Greek mercenary general in the service of Persia, at Halicarnassus. Supposedly, Alexander left Ptolemy with a force of 3000 men to finish subjugating the city while he moved on to Gordium. Ptolemy next appears at the battles of Issus and Gaugamela. At Issus he served in the left flank under the command of Parmenio. Next, when the Persian king Darius III was found dying after his defeat at Gaugamela and his assassin Bessus had been identified, it was Ptolemy who was sent to collect the assassin. He brought him to Alexander naked, in chains, and wearing a dog collar.

In Persepolis, Ptolemy was linked to the burning of the city. At one of Alexander’s celebrations, Ptolemy’s mistress Thais suggested the palace should be burned. In his World History Diodorus made mention of this incident:

"When the Companions were feasting, and intoxication was growing [...] a violent madness took hold of these drunken men. One of the women (Thasis) declared that it would be Alexander’s greatest achievement in Asia to join in their procession and set fire to the royal palace. [...] Others joined in the cry and said that only Alexander was worthy of this deed [... and] a quantity of torches was quickly collected. [...] The king led them to the revel, with Thais the courtesan conducting the ceremony. She was the first after the king to throw her blazing torch into the palace."

Egypt & India

Although his role is unclear, most historical accounts are in agreement that Ptolemy was with Alexander in both Egypt and India. He was in Egypt in 332 BC at Siwa and Memphis, but the History of Alexander has him playing a vital role in a number of conflicts in India while others have him as only a minor if not insignificant participant. One story which may or may not be true has Ptolemy’s life being saved during the campaign into India. After Ptolemy was struck by a poisoned arrow, it was Alexander who saved his life by using various native herbs to extract the poison. It was during this time, after a failed conspiracy to kill Alexander was discovered, that Ptolemy was named one of the king’s personal bodyguards.

Wars of the Diadochi

When Alexander died in 323 BC, the fate of the empire was left in the hands of Perdiccas, the cavalry leader, who had been handed Alexander’s signet ring on the king’s deathbed, a possible transference of power. Wanting to keep the empire intact, Perdiccas suggested everyone wait with naming a successor until after the birth of Alexander and Roxanne’s child (the future Alexander IV). Ptolemy was completely against this idea and led a campaign to divide the empire among the leading generals. He got his wish and received in the division his first choice – Egypt. The alliances that would be formed among these new satraps were tenuous and both war and peace would reign for 30 years. These battles became known as the Diadochi or Successor Wars.

The one common threat among these “kings” was that no one liked Perdiccas, and Perdiccas disliked Ptolemy above all. It was obvious that these two men would never agree, and this was even more evident when Ptolemy stole Alexander’s remains: Perdiccas sent Alexander’s body to a newly constructed tomb in Macedonia, but Ptolemy hijacked the body when it arrived in Damascus. Diodorus’s history recorded this theft:

"Ptolemy, moreover, doing honour to Alexander, went to meet it with an army as far as Syria and, receiving the body, deemed it worthy of the greatest consideration. He decided for the present not to send it to Ammon, but to entomb it in the city that had been founded by Alexander himself… There he prepared a precinct worthy of the glory of Alexander in size and construction."

Perdiccas resented this theft and immediately took action, attacking Egypt. This attack, however, would be his downfall; he led his troops on three separate missions into Egypt, failing each time to cross the Nile. With this failure and a loss of 2000 soldiers, his men revolted and executed him.

Unlike the other generals, Ptolemy’s major concern and ambition did not go far beyond the borders of Egypt. While he became involved in the infighting among the others and eventually acquired lands in the eastern Mediterranean, his major concern was Egypt. When Antigonus I invaded Babylon, Seleucus I Nicator sought asylum in Egypt with Ptolemy, but after Ptolemy’s defeat of Antigonus’ son Demetrius I of Macedon at Gaza, Seleucus was able to return to Babylon. Following a brief peace, Ptolemy was involved in a series of conflicts with both Antigonus and Demetrius, finally aiding in their defeat and Antigonus’ death at Ipsus in 301 BC. By then Ptolemy had assumed the title of king as well as being named Soter meaning “savior” for his defense of Rhodes against Demetrius.

Ptolemaic Dynasty

During Ptolemy’s rule of Egypt, he put the country on a sound economic and administrative footing. Since he did not want to fall under the influence of the priests and officials at Memphis, Ptolemy’s first decision was to move the country’s capital to Alexandria. Since it was on the Mediterranean Sea, it was strategically better, providing easier access to both the sea and his homeland of Greece. Because of this move, Alexandria became more of a Greek rather than Egyptian city. Greek became the language of both government and commerce. Amazingly, the only member of the Ptolemaic Dynasty to ever learn Egyptian was Cleopatra VII.

While he gave respect to the Egyptian priests and even rebuilt temples destroyed by the Persians, he believed he needed another way to connect with the Egyptian people. One of his first actions was to establish a cult of Alexander; of course, by doing this, he established himself as a legitimate heir. Alexander became a “state god” and his “priest” the highest clerical position in Egypt. Next, he created a new religion with a new god Serapis, the god of healing. This new religion was a combination of both Greek and Egyptian influences, although the Egyptians saw it as more Greek than Egyptian. It never achieved much success, and government funding was eventually withdrawn.

Ptolemy made Alexandria the intellectual center of the Mediterranean when he built a massive library and museum there. The museum contained a covered arcade, seating for quiet contemplation as well as a dining hall. The library contained thousands of papyrus scrolls and attracted men of literature and science from all over the Mediterranean area for years to come, Euclid and Archimedes being two of the more notable. It became the center of Hellenistic culture. Ptolemy began the construction of the Pharos, a lighthouse (to be completed by his son Ptolemy II). The Lighthouse of Alexandria was a massive structure of three stories with a statue of Zeus atop. A beacon was visible for miles and was lit day and night. It became one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient world. After Ptolemy died in 282 BC, his descendants would rule Egypt for almost 300 years until it was conquered by Julius Caesar and the Romans. After his death, Ptolemy was deified and a festival was held in his honor for years to come.

(Source: https://www.ancient.eu/Ptolemy_I/)

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Peucestas



Peucestas (in Greek Πευκέστας Pefkéstas; lived 4th century BC) was a native of the town of Mieza, in Macedonia, and a distinguished officer in the service of Alexander the Great. His name is first mentioned as one of those appointed to command a trireme on the Hydaspes. Previous to this we do not find him holding any command of importance; but it is evident that he must have distinguished himself for his personal valour and prowess, as he was the person selected by Alexander to carry before him in battle the sacred shield, which he had taken down from the temple of Athena at Troy. In this capacity he was in close attendance upon the king's person in the assault on the capital city of the Malavas (325 BC); and all authors agreed in attributing the chief share in saving the life of Alexander upon that occasion to Peucestas, while they differed as to almost all the other circumstances and persons concerned.

For his services on this occasion he was rewarded by the king with almost every distinction which it was in his power to confer. On the arrival of Alexander at Persepolis, he bestowed upon Peucestas the important satrapy of Persis, but, previous to this, he had already raised him to the rank of somatophylax (the king's bodyguard), an honour rendered the more conspicuous in this instance by the number of those select officers being augmented on purpose to make room for his admission. At Susa, also, Peucestas was the first of those rewarded with crowns of gold for their past exploits. After this he proceeded to take possession of his government, where he conciliated the favour of the Persians subject to his rule, as well as that of Alexander himself, by adopting the Persian dress and customs, in exchange for those of Macedonia; whence he is considered a Persophile.

In the spring of 323 BC, Peucestas joined the king at Babylon, with an army of 20,000 Persian troops; and is mentioned as one of those in attendance upon him during his last illness. It does not appear that he took any leading part in the discussions that ensued upon the death of Alexander, but in the division of the provinces that followed, he obtained the renewal of his government of Persis, which he also retained in the second partition at Triparadisus, 321 BC. All his attention seems to have been directed to strengthening himself in this position and extending his power and influence as far as possible. In this he so far succeeded, that when he was at length compelled to take an active part in the war between Antigonus and Eumenes (317 BC), he obtained by common consent the chief command of all the forces furnished by the satrapies east of the Tigris river; and was with difficulty induced to waive his pretensions to the supreme direction of the war. Eumenes, however, by his dexterous management, soothed the irritation of Peucestas, and retained him firmly in his alliance throughout the two campaigns that followed. The satrap was contented to gratify his pride by feasting the whole of the armies assembled in Persis on a scale of royal magnificence, while Eumenes virtually directed all the operations of the war.

But the disaster in the final action at the Battle of Gabiene near Gadamarta (316 BC) which led to the capture of the baggage, and the surrender of Eumenes by the Argyraspids, appears to have been clearly owing to the misconduct and insubordination of Peucestas, who, according to one account, was himself one of the chief advisers of the treaty. His conduct throughout these campaigns shows that he lacked both the ability to command for himself, and the moderation to follow the superior judgment of others. His vain and ambitious character seems to have been appreciated at its just value by Antigonus, who, while he deprived him of his satrapy, and led him away a virtual prisoner, elated him with false hopes and specious promises, which, of course, were never fulfilled.

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peucestas)

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Leonnatus



Leonnatus (Greek: Λεοννάτος; 356 BC – 322 BC) was a Macedonian officer of Alexander the Great and one of the diadochi.

He was a member of the royal house of Lyncestis, a small kingdom that had been included in Macedonia by King Philip II of Macedon. Leonnatus was the same age as Alexander and was very close to him. Later, he was one of Alexander's seven bodyguards, or somatophylakes. After Alexander died in 323 BC, the regent, Perdiccas, made Leonnatus satrap of Hellespontine Phrygia.

Diodorus (Book XVII.37-38) tells us that during the Battle of Issus, the immediate family of Darius had been captured by the Macedonian Army. Darius' family was hysterical that they would suffer a dreadful fate. However, Leonnatus was able to explain to them, on behalf of Alexander, that this would not be the case. In fact, Alexander promised to respect them as royalty, increase their household servants and to raise Darius' 6-year-old boy as his own.

Alexander's sister Cleopatra, the widow of King Alexander I of Epirus, offered her hand to Leonnatus. When the Athenians heard that Alexander had died, they revolted against Macedonia and the new regent, Antipater. Leonnatus led an army of 20,000 infantry with 1,500 cavalry to relieve Antipater during the siege in Lamia (see Lamian War). He intervened probably with the ambition to usurp Antipater's power. A victory in battle against the Athenians would have certainly enhanced his claim to the throne. Leonnatus was killed in battle against the Athenians and his marriage with Cleopatra never took place.

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leonnatus)

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Somatophylakes



Somatophylakes (singular: "somatophylax"), in its literal English translation from Ancient Greek, means "bodyguards". These bodyguards were high-ranking military units within the Ancient Macedonian army. They consisted of seven men who often held additional high command positions such as general or chiliarch. Alexander the Great appointed Peucestas as eighth somatophylax after the siege of Malli.

* 336-334: Aristonous, Arybbas, Balacrus, Demetrius, Lysimachus, Ptolemaeus, Peithon.
* 333: Aristonous, Arybbas, Balacrus, Demetrius, Hephaestion, Lysimachus, Peithon.
* 332: Aristonous, Arybbas, Menes, Demetrius, Hephaestion, Lysimachus, Peithon.
* 331: Aristonous, Leonnatus, Menes, Demetrius, Hephaestion, Lysimachus, Peithon.
* 330-327: Aristonous, Leonnatus, Perdiccas, Ptolemy I Soter, Hephaestion, Lysimachus, Peithon.
* 326-324: Aristonous, Leonnatus, Perdiccas, Ptolemy I Soter, Hephaestion, Lysimachus, Peithon, Peucestas
* 323: Aristonous, Leonnatus, Perdiccas, Ptolemy I Soter, Lysimachus, Peithon, Peucestas.

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Roxana (Rhoxane)



Roxana (Ancient Greek: Ῥωξάνη; Old Iranian Raoxshna; sometimes Rhoxane, Roxanne, Roxanna, Rukhsana, Roxandra and Roxane) was a Sogdian or a Bactrian princess of Bactria whom the Macedonian king, Alexander the Great, married, after defeating Darius III, the Achaemenian king, and invading Persia. She was born in c. 340 BC, though the precise date remains uncertain, and died in c. 310 BC.

Biography

Roxana was born in c. 340 BC as the daughter of a Bactrian nobleman named Oxyartes, who served Bessus, the satrap of Bactria and Sogdia. He was thus probably also involved in the murder of the last Achaemenid king Darius III. After Bessus was captured by the Macedonian ruler Alexander the Great, Oxyartes and his family continued to resist the Greeks, and along with other Iranian notables such as the Sogdian warlord Spitamenes, took up a defensive position in a fortress known as the Sogdian Rock.

However, they were eventually defeated by Alexander, who reportedly fell in love with Roxana on sight; in 327 BC, Alexander married Roxana despite the strong opposition from all his companions and generals. Alexander thereafter made an expedition into India and while there he appointed Oxyartes as the governor of the Hindu Kush region which was adjoining India. During this period, Roxana was in a safe place in Susa. When Alexander returned to Susa, he promoted a brother of Roxana to the elite cavalry.

After Alexander's sudden death at Babylon in 323 BC, Roxana is believed to have murdered Alexander's other widow, Stateira II, and possibly Stateira's sister, Drypteis, and her cousin, Parysatis II (Alexander's third wife). Roxana had born a son to Alexander after his death and would have wanted no competition.

Roxana and her son, named Alexander IV after his deceased father, were protected by Alexander's mother, Olympias, in Macedonia. Olympias' assassination in 316 BC allowed Cassander, who imprisoned Roxana and Alexander in the citadel of Amphipolis under the supervision of Glaucias, to seek kingship. Since Alexander IV was the legitimate heir to the Alexandrian empire, Cassander ordered Glaucias to poison Alexander and Roxana c. 310 BC.

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Philip III Arrhidaeus



Philip III Arrhidaeus (Ancient Greek: Φίλιππος Γ΄ ὁ Ἀρριδαῖος; c. 359 BC – 25 December, 317 BC) reigned as king of Macedonia from after 11 June 323 BC until his death. He was a son of King Philip II of Macedon by Philinna of Larissa, and thus an elder half-brother of Alexander the Great. Named Arrhidaeus at birth, he assumed the name Philip when he ascended to the throne.

As Arrhidaeus grew older it became apparent that he had mild learning difficulties. Plutarch was of the view that he became disabled by means of an attempt on his life by Philip II's wife, Queen Olympias, who wanted to eliminate a possible rival to her son, Alexander, through the employment of pharmaka (drugs/spells); however, most modern authorities doubt the truth of this claim.

Alexander was fond of Arrhidaeus and took him on his campaigns[citation needed], both to protect his life and to prevent his use as a pawn in any prospective challenge for the throne. After Alexander's death in Babylon in 323 BC, the Macedonian army in Asia proclaimed Arrhidaeus as king; however, he served merely as a figurehead and as the pawn of a series of powerful generals.

Biography

Even though Arrhidaeus and Alexander were about the same age, Arrhidaeus appears never to have been a danger as an alternative choice for Alexander's succession to Philip II; nevertheless, when the Persian satrap of Caria, Pixodarus, proposed his daughter in marriage to Philip, the king declined, offering his son Arrhidaeus as husband instead, and Alexander thought it prudent to block the dynastic union (which might have produced a possible future heir to Philip's domain before Alexander himself did), resulting in considerable irritation on the part of his father (337 BC). Arrhidaeus' whereabouts during the reign of his brother Alexander are unclear from the extant sources; what is certain is that no civil or military command was given to him in those thirteen years (336–323 BC).

He was in Babylon at the time of Alexander's death on 10 June 323 BC. A succession crisis ensued. Arrhidaeus was the most obvious candidate, but he was mentally disabled and thus unfit to rule.[4] A conflict then arose between Perdiccas, leader of the cavalry, and Meleager, who commanded the phalanx: the first wanted to wait to see if Roxana, Alexander's pregnant wife, would deliver a male baby, while the second objected that Arrhidaeus was the closest living relative and so should be chosen king. Meleager was killed, and a compromise was engineered: Arrhidaeus would become king, with the name of Philip, and he would be joined by Roxana's yet-unborn child as co-sovereign should that child prove a male. This eventuality did indeed arise and resulted in Roxana's son, Alexander, becoming with his uncle Phillip III co-sovereign on the throne of Macedon. It was immediately decided that Philip Arrhidaeus would reign, but not rule: this was to be the prerogative of the new regent, Perdiccas.

When news arrived in Macedonia that Arrhidaeus had been chosen as king, Cynane, a daughter of Philip II, developed a plan to travel to Asia and offer the new king her daughter Eurydice for wife. This move was an obvious affront to the regent, whom Cynane had completely bypassed, and to prevent the marriage, Perdiccas sent his brother, Alcetas, to kill Cynane. The reaction among the troops generated by this murder was such that the regent had to give up his opposition to the proposed match and accept the marriage. From that moment on, Philip Arrhidaeus was to be under the sway of his bride, a proud and determined woman bent on substantiating her husband's power.

Eurydice's chance to increase her husband's power came when the first war of the Diadochi sealed the fate of Perdiccas, making a new settlement necessary. An agreement was made at Triparadisus in Syria in 321 BC. Eurydice moved deftly enough to achieve the removal of the first two designated regents, Peithon and Arrhidaeus (a namesake of her husband), but was powerless to block the aspirations of Antipater, whose position proved too powerful, and the latter was made the new regent; Philip Arrhidaeus and Eurydice were forced to follow Antipater back to Macedonia.

The regent died of natural causes the following year, nominating as his successor not his son Cassander, but his friend and lieutenant, Polyperchon. Cassander's refusal to accept his father's decision sparked the Second War of the Diadochi, in which Eurydice saw once again a chance to free Philip from the control of the regent.

An opportunity presented itself in 317 BC when Cassander expelled Polyperchon from Macedonia. Eurydice immediately allied herself with Cassander and persuaded her husband to nominate him as the new regent. Cassander reciprocated by leaving her in full control of the country when he left to campaign in Greece.

But individual circumstances and events at this time were subject to rapid change. That same year, Polyperchon and Olympias allied with her cousin, Aeacides, king of Epirus, and invaded Macedonia. The Macedonian troops refused to fight Olympias, the mother of Alexander. Philip and Eurydice had no choice but to escape, only to be captured at Amphipolis and thrown into prison. It soon became clear that Philip was too dangerous to be left alive, as Olympias' many enemies saw him as a useful tool against her, and so on 25 December 317 BC, she had him executed, while his wife was forced to commit suicide.

Tomb

In 1977, important excavations were made near Vergina leading to the discovery of a two-chambered royal tomb, with an almost perfectly preserved male skeleton. Manolis Andronikos, the chief archaeologist at the site, along with a number of other archaeologists, decided it was the skeleton of Philip II, but others have disputed this attribution and instead proposed it to be the remains of Philip Arrhidaeus.
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Meleager



Meleager (Greek: Mελέαγρος Meleagros; died 323 BC) was a Macedonian officer who served Alexander the Great with distinction. Among the king's generals who went with him to Asia, he was the most experienced as the only military figure who exceeded his experience was the Macedonian general Antipater who remained in Macedon during Alexander's entire Asian campaign.

Career

Meleager, son of Neoptolemus, is first mentioned in the war against the Getae in 335 BC. At the Battle of the Granicus in the following year, he commanded one of the divisions of the phalanx, a post which he continued to hold throughout Alexander's campaigns in Asia. He was appointed, together with Coenus and Ptolemy, the son of Seleucus, to command the newly married troops who were sent home from Caria to spend the winter in Macedon, and rejoined Alexander at Gordium during the following summer.

Meleager was present at the Battles of Issus and Gaugamela, and was associated with Craterus in the task of dislodging the enemy who guarded the passes into Persia. He took part in the passage of the Hydaspes and in various other operations in India.

Despite a long series of services, Alexander did not promote Meleager to any higher position, nor did Meleager take part in any separate command of importance. There are accounts that suggest that the two did not get along or at least had a history of disagreements. For instance, when Alexander gave gifts to the Indian prince Taxiles, Meleager was recorded to have quipped bitterly that it was a pity for the king to travel all the way to India only to give a man such lavish rewards with Alexander retorting that envious men only hurt themselves.

Politics and death

After the death of Alexander in 323 BC, Meleager was the first to propose in the council of officers, that either Arrhidaeus or Heracles, the son of Barsine, should at once be chosen as king, rather than waiting to see if the pregnant Roxana would bear a son. There are sources who suggest that this proposal was motivated by a desire to install a king who was a Macedonian instead of one who had Persian roots or Persian sympathies. The Roman historian Justin, for instance, stated that Meleager was quoted saying: "It was unlawful that kings should be chosen for the Macedonians from the blood of those kingdoms they had overthrown." The Roman historian, Curtius, states that Meleager broke out into violent invectives against the ambition of Perdiccas and then abruptly quit the assembly in order to encourage the soldiery to express their opposition against Perdiccas. The Greek historian, Diodorus, states that Meleager was sent by the assembled generals to appease the clamours and discontent of the troops, but instead of doing so, he joined the mutineers.

Meleager assumed the leadership of the opposition to Perdiccas and his party and placed himself at the head of the infantry, who had declared themselves (possibly at his instigation) in favour of the claims of Arrhidaeus to the vacant throne. Meleager ordered the execution of Perdiccas, but the implementation of this instruction was nullified by the boldness of the regent. The greater part of the cavalry, together with almost all the generals, sided with Perdiccas, and leaving Babylon, established themselves in a separate camp outside the walls of the city. A reconciliation between both sides was achieved, principally thanks to the intervention of Eumenes, and it was agreed that the royal authority should be divided between Arrhidaeus and the expected son of Roxana and that, in the meantime, Meleager should be associated with Perdiccas in the regency.

It was impossible that Meleager and Perdiccas could long continue on friendly terms, and Meleager proved no match for Perdiccas. Perdiccas contrived to lull his rival into a false sense of security, while he made himself master of Philip Arrhidaeus. Then he struck the first blow. The whole army was assembled under the pretence of a general review. Then the king, at the instigation of Perdiccas, suddenly demanded the surrender and punishment of all the leaders of the recent disorders. The infantry were taken by surprise, with 300 of the alleged mutineers being singled out and executed. Although Meleager was not personally attacked, he fled and took refuge in a temple, where he was pursued and put to death on the orders of Perdiccas.
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Alexander's Army



The army of the Kingdom of Macedon was among the greatest military forces of the ancient world. It was created and made formidable by King Philip II of Macedon; previously the army of Macedon had been of little account in the politics of the Greek world, and Macedonia had been regarded as a second-rate power.

The latest innovations in weapons and tactics were adopted and refined by Philip II, and he created a uniquely flexible and effective army. By introducing military service as a full-time occupation, Philip was able to drill his men regularly, ensuring unity and cohesion in his ranks. In a remarkably short time, this led to the creation of one of the finest military machines of the ancient world. Tactical improvements included the latest developments in the deployment of the traditional Greek phalanx made by men such as Epaminondas of Thebes and Iphicrates of Athens. Philip II improved on these military innovators by using both Epaminondas' deeper phalanx and Iphicrates' combination of a longer spear and smaller and lighter shield. However, the Macedonian king also innovated; he introduced the use of a much longer spear, the two-handed pike. The Macedonian pike, the sarissa, gave its wielder many advantages both offensively and defensively. For the first time in Greek warfare, cavalry became a decisive arm in battle. The Macedonian army perfected the co-ordination of different troop types, an early example of combined arms tactics — the heavy infantry phalanx, skirmish infantry, archers, light cavalry and heavy cavalry, and siege engines were all deployed in battle; each troop type being used to its own particular advantage and creating a synergy of mutual support.

The new Macedonian army was an amalgamation of different forces. Macedonians and other Greeks (especially Thessalian cavalry) and a wide range of mercenaries from across the Aegean and Balkans were employed by Phillip. By 338 BC, more than a half of the army for his planned invasion of the Achaemenid Empire of Persia came from outside the borders of Macedon — from all over the Greek world and the nearby barbarian tribes, such as the Illyrians, Paeonians, and Thracians. After Philip's death, his successor, Alexander the Great, used the army to conquer the Achaemenid Empire.

Unfortunately, most of the primary historical sources for this period have been lost. As a consequence, scholarship is largely reliant on the works of Diodorus Siculus and Arrian, plus the incomplete writings of Curtius, all of whom lived centuries later than the events they describe.

Origins

If Philip II of Macedon had not been the father of Alexander the Great, he would be more widely known as a first-rate military innovator, tactician and strategist, and as a consummate politician. The conquests of Alexander would have been impossible without the army his father created. Considered semi-barbarous by some metropolitan Greeks, the Macedonians were a martial people; they drank deeply of unwatered wine (the very mark of a barbarian) and no youth was considered to be fit to sit with the men at table until he had killed, on foot with a spear, a wild boar.

When Philip took over control of Macedon, it was a backward state on the fringes of the Greek world and was beset by its traditional enemies: Illyrians, Paeonians and Thracians. The basic structure of the army inherited by Philip II was the division of the companion cavalry (hetairoi) from the foot companions (pezhetairoi), augmented by various allied troops, foreign levied soldiers, and mercenaries. The foot companions existed perhaps since the reign of Alexander I of Macedon, while Macedonian troops are accounted for in the history of Herodotus as subjects of the Persian Empire fighting the Greeks at the Battle of Plataea in 479 BC. Macedonian cavalry, wearing muscled cuirasses, became renowned in Greece during and after their involvement in the Peloponnesian War (431–404 BC), at times siding with either Athens or Sparta and supplemented by local Greek infantry instead of relying on Macedonian infantry. Macedonian infantry in this period consisted of poorly trained shepherds and farmers, while the cavalry was composed of noblemen eager to win glory. An early 4th-century BC stone-carved relief from Pella shows a Macedonian hoplite infantryman wearing a pilos helmet and wielding a short sword showing a pronounced Spartan influence on the Macedonian army before Philip II.

Nicholas Sekunda states that at the beginning of Philip II's reign in 359 BC, the Macedonian army consisted of 10,000 infantry and 600 cavalry, the latter figure similar to that recorded for the 5th century BC. However, Malcolm Errington cautions that any figures for Macedonian troop sizes provided by ancient authors should be treated with a degree of skepticism, since there are very few means by which modern historians are capable of confirming their veracity (and could have been possibly lower or even higher than the numbers stated).

Philip's first achievement was to unify Macedon through his army. He raised troops and made his army the single fount of wealth, honour and power in the land; the unruly chieftains of Macedonia became the officers and elite cavalrymen of the army, the highland peasants became the footsoldiers. Philip took pains to keep them always under arms and either fighting or drilling. Manoeuvres and drills were made into competitive events, and the truculent Macedonians vied with each other to excel.

As a political counterbalance to the native-born Macedonian nobility, Philip invited military families from throughout Greece to settle on lands he had conquered or confiscated from his enemies, these 'personal clients' then also served as army officers or in the Companion cavalry. After taking control of the gold-rich mines of Mount Pangaeus, and the city of Amphipolis that dominated the region, he obtained the wealth to support a large army. It was a professional army imbued with a national spirit, an unusual combination for the Greek world of the time. The armies of contemporary Greek states were largely reliant on a combination of citizens and mercenaries. The former were not full-time soldiers, and the latter, though professional, had little or no inherent loyalty to their employers. By the time of his death, Philip's army had pushed the Macedonian frontier into southern Illyria, conquered the Paeonians and Thracians, asserted a hegemony over Thessaly, destroyed the power of Phocis and defeated and humbled Athens and Thebes. All the states of Greece, with the exception of Sparta, Epirus and Crete, had become subservient allies of Macedon (League of Corinth) and Philip was laying the foundations of an invasion of the Persian Empire, an invasion that his son would successfully undertake.

One important military innovation of Philip II is often overlooked, he banned the use of wheeled transport and limited the number of camp servants to one to every ten infantrymen and one each for the cavalry. This reform made the baggage train of the army very small for its size and improved its speed of march.

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Demosthenes



During the fourth century, the Greek towns were even more divided than in the fifth century, when the Peloponnesian League and Delian League had given some semblance of order to the Greek world. During the Peloponnesian War (431-404), however, Persian gold started to play a role and this was usually sufficient to ensure an endless series of wars among the "Yaunâ". Meanwhile, Macedonia was united by king Philip II, gained strength, and after 346, it was clearly the strongest power in Europe.

The Athenian politician Aeschines (c.390-c.315) tried to make the best of it. In his view, the best way to protect Athenian independence was peaceful coexistence with Macedonia. A war could not be won. With the benefit of hindsight, we know that this was the correct reading of the signs of the times, but not everyone agreed. Aeschines' main opponent was the orator Demosthenes, who proposed resistance to Macedonian imperialism.

His father had been a producer of arms and died in 377, leaving the family fortune to his six or seven year old son. His mother educated him, while relatives and friends took care of the money. According to Demosthenes, they actually stole it, and he therefore accused them as soon as he was old enough. The guardians were convicted in what became a famous lawsuit. There's something strange about the incident, however. Demosthenes had been taught speaking by a man named Iasus; even if he did it for free, Demosthenes must have had sufficient time to be with him, which can only mean that he was richer than he wanted to admit, and this in turn can only mean that the guardians had not embezzled a very great deal.

Demosthenes continued his studies in the school of Isocrates, one of the greatest orators of the mid-fourth century. Stories about a study at the Academy of Plato are probably later inventions.

Demosthenes' career as a specialist on international relations started in 355 but it took him a couple of years to find his role as the archenemy of the Macedonian king Philip II, whom he had correctly identified as the greatest threat to Athenian autonomy, and -incorrectly- thought could be beaten. In 351, Demosthenes warned his fellow citizens against cooperation with the northern kingdom, in a speech that is known as the First Philippic. Other Philippics were to follow, and the expression "philippic" has been proverbial ever since.

Generally, Demosthenes' policy was one of straightforward confrontation. When the city of Olynthus applied for help in 349, he argued for rapid and massive intervention, but the Athenians could only respond slowly and with insufficient troops, so that the city fell in 348. Even this small intervention appears to have exhausted Athens, which was still recuperating from the losses it had suffered during the Social War (357-355).

Demosthenes knew when to negotiate. In 347/346, he and Aeschines were members of the embassy to king Philip that concluded the treaty that became known as the Peace of Philocrates. One of the terms of this treaty was the surrender of Amphipolis to Macedonia, something that most Athenians found unacceptable.

Demosthenes immediately started to distance himself from the treaty, and in 343, when it had become clear that renegotation was impossible, he accused Aeschines for his conduct during the negotiations, claiming that he had accepted bribes from the king. The accusation was probably untrue, but Demosthenes was popular. In the end, Aeschines was only acquitted because he was supported by the military leader Phocion and the orator Eubulus.

Demosthenes continued to prepare his country for a war with Macedonia, which he thought was inevitable. He proposed a new "Hellenistic League" like the one that had once fought against the Persian king Xerxes, but now directed against the Macedonian danger. He also argued for close cooperation with Xerxes' descendant, king Artaxerxes III Ochus, who sent splendid presents to Demosthenes. In new Philippic Speeches, the orator exhorted the Athenians to rise up and prepare for a fight.

War was eventually declared in the Autumn 340, when the Macedonian king had laid siege to Perinthus and Byzantium and threatened the Athenian food supply. Demosthenes proposed a reform of the taxation system to raise more money for the naval policy, but the war was not to be decided at sea. In August 338, a united army of Athenians and Thebans was defeated at Chaeronea by king Philip and his son Alexander. During the next weeks, Demosthenes prepared everything for the siege of Athens, but the Macedonian crown prince came as a negotiator to Athens and offered reasonable peace conditions, which the Athenians accepted.

In 337, they joined the Corinthian League. This was, in fact, the Hellenic League that Demosthenes had once proposed, but now presided by Philip, who wanted to unify all Greek city-states in one alliance. Together, they would attack the Achaemenid Empire, where a crisis of succession was taken place. Philip even sent his trusted general Parmenion to Asia, but he never joined the panhellenic war against the Persian himself, because he was murdered in October 336. Demosthenes announced the murder during a meeting of the Athenian assembly, dressed as if he wanted to visit a party.

During the next weeks, the Greek mercenary leader Memnon of Rhodes, who was a commander in the Persian army, pushed back the army of Parmenion, and Demosthenes opened negotiations with Attalus, Parmenion's fellow-commander and a well-known personal enemy of the new king of Macedonia, Alexander. However, before Attalus could raise a rebellion, Parmenion killed him.

But Demosthenes was not at the end of his energy. He forwarded Persian money to Thebes, which revolted against king Alexander in the summer of 335. The new Macedonian leader marched to the south and sacked the ancient city before it had received reinforcements. Athens was forced to make apologies and an official embassy congratulated him with his accession, "a bit late", as the historian Arrian of Nicomedia dryly comments.

Although Demosthenes' policy had ruined Athens, he remained popular, and his policy to support Alexander's campaign in Asia not too enthusiastically was widely endorsed. An otherwise unknown politician named Ctesiphon even proposed to offer Demosthenes a gold wreath. Aeschines was against this and indicted Ctesiphon as the author of an illegal measure, which appears to have been a correct assessment of the proposal. This famous speech is called Against Ctesiphon.

Demosthenes' even more famous counter-speech On the crown, however, convinced everybody that Aeschines' accusations were mere formalities. Demosthenes presented himself as the true patriot, said that all his acts had been supported by many people, and implied that the Athenians, if they found him guilty, in fact condemned themselves. This converted the trial into a plebiscite about recent Athenian policy. His speech, considered to be the best speech by the best orator of Greece, was a triumph and in a hostile, anti-Macedonian climate (the Spartan king Agis III was preparing for war against the Macedonians), Aeschines was fined and retired into exile in Asia Minor (330).

The policy of king Alexander became increasingly autocratic, and in 324, there were widespread rumors that his viceroy Antipater, who left behind to keep an eye on the Greeks, wanted to revolt in Macedonia proper. Alexander's decree about the exiles caused even more unrest in Greece, and at the same time, a courtier of Alexander named Harpalus fled to Greece with an immense amount of money.

Alexander's request to receive divine honors did nothing to take away the problems. Demosthenes retorted with the famous remark that as far as he was concerned, Alexander could be venerated as son of Zeus, "and as son of Poseidon as well, if he wants to". Demosthenes embarked again upon a war policy, and although he appears to have made mistakes and was briefly exiled because he had not been more successful, there was indeed a Greek insurrection when Alexander died on 11 June 323 in Babylon (the Lamian war).

The orator returned to Athens, and again tried to organize a panhellenic revolt against Macedonia. For a while, the Greeks were indeed successful, but after a year of war, the Macedonians were ultimately victorious during the battle of Crannon. After this defeat, Demosthenes was condemned again by the Athenians, and committed suicide.

Demosthenes has always been regarded as the greatest orator of Antiquity, and it is not exaggerated to say that his death marked the end of Greek political speech. Many of his speeches have survived, because in the third century, a first scholarly edition was prepared (by Callimachus of Cyrene).

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Double Wow, Vicki! Demosthenes has always fascinated me — now I know why! Of course, Demosthenes was the orator who practiced his speeches by the seaside with his mouth full of pebbles ... Legend? Maybe, maybe not ... still, a very talented man! Thank you for the information!
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Antipater



Antipater (/ænˈtɪpətər/; Ancient Greek: Ἀντίπατρος, romanized:
Antipatros, lit. 'like the father'; c. 400 BC – 319 BC) was a Macedonian general and statesman under kings Philip II of Macedon and Alexander the Great, and father of King Cassander. In 320 BC, he became regent of all of Alexander the Great's Empire but died the next year; he had named an officer named Polyperchon as his successor instead of his son Cassander, and a two-year-long power struggle ensued.

Career under Philip and Alexander

Nothing is known of his early career until 342 BC, when he was appointed by Philip to govern Macedon as his regent while the former left for three years of hard and successful campaigning against Thracian and Scythian tribes, which extended Macedonian rule as far as the Hellespont. In 342 BC, when the Athenians tried to assume control of the Euboean towns and expel the pro-Macedonian rulers, he sent Macedonian troops to stop them. In the autumn of the same year, Antipater went to Delphi, as Philip's representative in the Amphictyonic League, a religious organization to which Macedon had been admitted in 346 BC.

After the triumphal Macedonian victory at the Battle of Chaeronea in 338 BC, Antipater was sent as ambassador to Athens (337–336 BC) to negotiate a peace treaty and return the bones of the Athenians who had fallen in the battle.

He started as a great friend to both the young Alexander and the boy's mother, Olympias, and aided Alexander in the struggle to secure his succession after Philip's death, in 336 BC.

He joined Parmenion in advising Alexander the Great not to set out on his Asiatic expedition until he had provided by marriage for the succession to the throne. On the king's departure in 334 BC, he was left regent in Macedonia and made "general (strategos) of Europe", positions he held until 323 BC. The European front was to prove initially quite agitated, and Antipater also had to send reinforcements to the king, as he did while the king was at Gordium in the winter of 334–333 BC.

The Persian fleet under Memnon of Rhodes and Pharnabazus was apparently a considerable danger for Antipater, bringing war in the Aegean sea and threatening war in Europe. Luckily for the regent, Memnon died during the siege of Mytilene on the isle of Lesbos and the remaining fleet dispersed in 333 BC, after Alexander's victory at the Battle of Issus.

More dangerous enemies were nearer home; tribes in Thrace rebelled in 332 BC, led by Memnon of Thrace, the Macedonian governor of the region, followed shortly by the revolt of Agis III, king of Sparta.

The Spartans, who were not members of the League of Corinth and had not participated in Alexander's expedition, saw in the Asian campaign the long-awaited chance to take back control over the Peloponnese after the disastrous defeats at the Battle of Leuctra and Battle of Mantinea. The Persians generously funded Sparta's ambitions, making possible the formation of an army 20,000 strong. After assuming virtual control of Crete, Agis tried to build an anti-Macedonian front. While Athens remained neutral, the Achaeans, Arcadians and Elis became his allies, with the important exception of Megalopolis, the staunchly anti-Spartan capital of Arcadia. In 331 BC Agis started to besiege the city with his entire army. Antipater had to act now.
Antipater vanquished the Spartan king Agis III in the Battle of Megalopolis in 321 BC.

So to not have two enemies simultaneously, Antipater pardoned Memnon and even let him keep his office in Thrace, while great sums of money were sent to him by Alexander. This helped to create, with Thessalian help and many mercenaries, a force double that of Agis, which Antipater in person led south in 330 BC to confront the Spartans. In the spring of that year, the two armies clashed near Megalopolis. Agis fell with many of his best soldiers, but not without inflicting heavy losses on the Macedonians.

Utterly defeated, the Spartans sued for peace; the latter's answer was to negotiate directly with the League of Corinth, but the Spartan emissaries preferred to treat directly with Alexander, who imposed on Sparta's allies a penalty of 120 talents and the entrance of Sparta in the league.

Alexander appears to have been quite jealous of Antipater's victory; according to Plutarch, the king wrote in a letter to his viceroy: "It seems, my friends that while we have been conquering Darius here, there has been a battle of mice in Arcadia".

Antipater was disliked for supporting oligarchs and tyrants in Greece, but he also worked with the League of Corinth, built by Philip. In addition, his previously close relationship with the ambitious Olympias greatly deteriorated. Whether from jealousy or from the necessity of guarding against the evil consequences of the dissension between Olympias and Antipater, in 324 BC, Alexander ordered the latter to lead fresh troops into Asia, while Craterus, in charge of discharged veterans returning home, was appointed to take over the regency in Macedon. When Alexander suddenly died in Babylon in 323 BC however, Antipater was able to forestall the transfer of power.

Some later historians, such as Justin in his Historia Philippicae et Totius Mundi Origines et Terrae Situs blamed Antipater for the death of Alexander, accusing him of murdering him through poison. However, this view is disputed by most historians and Alexander is believed to have died of natural causes.

The fight for succession

The new regent, Perdiccas, left Antipater in control of Greece. Antipater faced wars with Athens, Aetolia, and Thessaly that made up the Lamian War, in which southern Greeks attempted to re-assert their political autonomy. He defeated them at the Battle of Crannon in 322 BC, with Craterus' help, and broke up the coalition. As part of this he imposed oligarchy upon Athens and demanded the surrender of Demosthenes, who committed suicide to escape capture. Later in the same year Antipater and Craterus were engaged in a war against the Aetolians when he received the news from Antigonus in Asia Minor that Perdiccas contemplated making himself outright ruler of the empire. Antipater and Craterus accordingly concluded peace with the Aetolians and went to war against Perdiccas, allying themselves with Ptolemy, the satrap of Egypt. Antipater crossed over to Asia in 321 BC. While still in Syria, he received information that Perdiccas had been murdered by his own soldiers. Craterus fell in battle against Eumenes (Diodorus xviii. 25-39).

Regent of the Empire

In the treaty of Triparadisus (321 BC), Antipater participated in a new division of Alexander's great kingdom. He appointed himself supreme regent of all Alexander's empire and was left in Greece as guardian of Alexander's son Alexander IV and his disabled brother Philip III.

Having quelled a mutiny of his troops and commissioned Antigonus to continue the war against Eumenes and the other partisans of Perdiccas, Antipater returned to Macedonia, arriving there in 320 BC (Justin xiii. 6). Soon after, he was seized by an illness which terminated his active career.

Death and struggle for succession

Antipater died of old age in 319 BC, at the age of 81. By his side was his son Cassander.

Controversially, Antipater did not appoint Cassander to succeed him as regent, citing as the reason for his decision Cassander's relative youth (at the time of Antipater's passing, Cassander was 36). Over Cassander, Antipater chose the aged officer Polyperchon as regent.

Cassander became indignant at this, believing that he'd earned the right to become regent by virtue of his loyalty and experience. Thus he appealed to general Antigonus to assist him in battling Polyperchon for the position.

In 317 BC, after two years of war with Polyperchon, Cassander emerged victorious. Cassander would go on to rule Macedonia for nineteen years, first as regent and later as king, ultimately founding the Antipatrid dynasty.

(Source:https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antipater )

More:
https://www.ancient.eu/Antipater/
https://www.livius.org/articles/perso...
https://www.britannica.com/biography/...
http://www.historyofmacedonia.org/Anc...
https://oxfordre.com/classics/view/10...
by Joseph Roisman (no photo)
by Lee L. Brice (no photo)
by Waldemar Heckel (no photo)
by John D. Grainger (no photo)
by Graham Phillips

Craterus


Alexander and Craterus on a lion hunt, mosaic in Pella

Craterus or Krateros (Greek: Κρατερός; c. 370 BC – 321 BC) was an ancient Macedonian general under Alexander the Great and one of the Diadochi.

Craterus was the son of a Macedonian nobleman named Alexander from Orestis and brother of admiral Amphoterus. Craterus commanded the phalanx and all infantry on the left wing in Battle of Issus in 333 BC. In Hyrcania he was sent on a mission against the Tapurians, his first independent command with the Macedonian army. At the Battle of the Hydaspes in 326 BC, near modern Jhelum, he commanded the rearguard, which stayed on the western bank; his men crossed the river only during the final stages of the battle.

At the festivities in Susa, Craterus married princess Amastris, daughter of Oxyathres, the brother of Darius III. Craterus and Polyperchon were appointed to lead 11,500 veteran soldiers back to Macedonia. Craterus was in Cilicia, where he was building the fleet, when Alexander unexpectedly died in Babylon.

In 322 Craterus aided Antipater in the Lamian War against Athens. He sailed with his Cilician navy to Greece and led troops at the Battle of Crannon in 322. When Antigonus rose in rebellion against Perdiccas and Eumenes, Craterus joined him, alongside Antipater and Ptolemy. He married Antipater's daughter Phila, with whom he had a son, also called Craterus.

He was killed in battle against Eumenes in Asia Minor when his charging horse fell over him, somewhere near the Hellespont, in 321.

(Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Craterus)

More:
https://www.britannica.com/biography/...
https://www.livius.org/articles/perso...
http://www.historyofmacedonia.org/Anc...
https://theworldofalexanderthegreat.w...
http://www.historyofwar.org/articles/...
by Waldemar Heckel (no photo)
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by Stephen English (no photo)
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by James R. Ashley (no photo)

Alexander the Great movies

Alexander the Great (1941)
The story is set in 326 B.C. The film begins after Alexander the Great (Sikander in Hindi/Urdu) conquers Persia and the Kabul valley and approaches the Indian border at Jhelum. He respects Aristotle and loves Persian Rukhsana (known in the west as Roxana).

Alexander the Great (1956)
The life and military conquests of Alexander III of Macedon (July 20/21, 356 - June 10/11, 323 B.C.), commonly known as Alexander the Great.

Reign: The Conqueror (Japanese TV anime series 1997)
A unique re-telling of the story of Alexander the Great; a powerful warrior King who was prophesied to conquer and destroy the world.


In the Footsteps of Alexander the Great (TV Mini-Series 1998)
Documentary series retracing the journey of Alexander the Great across sixteen countries.

Alexander (2004)
Alexander, the King of Macedonia and one of the greatest army leaders in the history of warfare, conquers much of the known world.

Alexander the Great (2006)
Inspired by his mentor Aristotle, young Alexander wishes to become a hero like the legendary Achilles. When his father, King Philip, is killed by the wicked Emperor Darius, the young king assembles an army and sets out for revenge. Come join Alexander the Great on a journey full of epic battles where he learns that the value of forgiveness is more powerful than revenge.

Young Alexander the Great (2010)
The coming of age of young Alexander, future world conqueror, from his boyhood in Macedonia to his assumption of Regent of the Land, after proving his worth to his father, the demanding King Phillip.

Alexander the Great's Family Tree



This doesn't show the whole tree. Go to the link for the full picture.

(Source: https://www.ancient.eu/image/11701/fa...)

Ptolemaic dynasty



(Source: https://ptolemyfamily.weebly.com/thes...)

Antigonus I


Antigonus I Monophthalmus ("the One-Eyed") (382 -301 BCE) was one of the successor kings to Alexander the Great, controlling Macedonia and Greece.

When Alexander the Great died in 323 BCE, a conflict known as the Wars of the Diadochi ensued over his massive empire stretching from Greece to India. It was eventually divided among three of his most loyal generals and their families - Ptolemy I and his descendants, the Ptolemaic Dynasty (among them Cleopatra VII) would rule Egypt; Seleucus I Nicator and his family ruled Syria and the Near Eastern provinces, and lastly, the descendants of Antigonus ruled Macedonia and Greece. Although this was the way it ended, it was not how it began.

Alexander's General

Antigonus was a Macedonian general and nobleman who served ably under both Alexander the Great and his father Phillip II (r. 359 BCE - 336 BCE). After Phillip’s death by assassination at the hands of his former bodyguard Pausanias, Alexander decided to follow his father’s dream and cross the Hellespont into Anatolia to meet and defeat Darius III (r. 336-330 BCE) and conquer the Achaemenid Empire. Antigonus, at the age of 60, followed Alexander on this campaign.

After crossing the Hellespont, Alexander marched his troops northward, pausing briefly to give homage to the heroes of Homeros, Achilles and the Greeks fallen in the Troyan War. He then moved southward defeating the Persians at the Battle of Granicus in May 334 BCE. Before leaving to eventually meet and defeat Darius III at the Battle of Issus (November 333 BCE), Alexander left Antigonus as satrap of Phrygia (western Anatolia) with a force of 1500 troops to help defend the satrapy, maintaining a capital at Celanae. He would remain there for the remainder of Alexander’s war against the Persians. Antigonus' primary responsibility was to maintain Alexander’s lines of supply and communication; however, his stay there did not go smoothly. After Alexander and his massive army moved further south into Syria, the Persians attempted to regain some of the territory they had lost. Antigonus and his army had to defend his domain in Phrygia on three different occasions, winning all three battles. One of these battles was against the Greek mercenary Memnon (loyal to Darius) who had recently been defeated at Granicus.

In 323 BCE Alexander died in Babylon, but just prior to dying, Alexander handed his signet ring to his senior cavalry officer Perdiccas, a possible indication to some that Alexander was naming him as a successor. Perdiccas immediately brought the other generals together to discuss the future of the empire. Meleager, an infantry leader, was considered (at least in his own mind) to be second in command - a position he would not remain in for long. Perdiccas had him executed: an indication that a fight over the empire lay ahead. The major question remained: who was to rule? Perdiccas elected to wait until Roxanne and Alexander’s child was born, the son who would become Alexander IV. However, the young Alexander would never rule, as both Roxanne and young Alexander were executed by Antipater’s son Cassander in 310 BCE, solving the entire inheritance problem.

The generals finally agreed to divide Alexander’s empire in the Partition of Babylon. The partition granted Antigonus the satrapy of Phrygia as well as Pamphylia and Lycia (northwestern Anatolia). Antipater remained as regent of Macedonia while his son, Cassander, received Caria (southwestern Anatolia). Ptolemy remained as regent in Egypt. Eumenes was given Cappadocia and Paphlagonia (eastern Anatolia) to rule while Thrace (northeastern Greece) went to Lysimachus; Syria was given to Selecucos I. This division, however, was not to remain. There would be 20 more years of war. Alliances came and went, peace was inconsistent and jealousy remained throughout.

Wars of the Diadochi

The arguments over territory began when Perdiccas became angry at Antigonus because he refused to help Eumenes keep control of his allotted territory. Antigonus wanted to avoid conflict with Perdiccas so he and his 13-year-old son Demetrius sought refuge in Macedonia, gaining favor of Antipater - they united against Perdiccas and Eumenes. Eumenes was defeated and imprisoned in 321 BCE. Next, Antigonus allied himself with Antipater, Ptolemy, and Lysimachus against Perdiccas. Perdiccas died by assassination in 321 BCE thus ending the alliance.

Upon the death of his father Antipater in 319 BCE, Cassander was denied the regency of Macedonia; Antipater had believed him too young to oppose the other regents. Instead, he named Polyperchon as the new regent, who allied himself with Eumenes to maintain his regency (even though Eumenes was still imprisoned at the fortress at Nora). The other regents refused to recognize Polyperchon’s authority, fearing a threat to their own regency. Eumenes escaped from his imprisonment, however, to aid Polyperchon. Antigonus fought Eumenes twice, defeating him both times, with the result that Eumenes’ famed Silver Shields, an elite Macedonian regiment, turned him over to Antigonus who summarily had him executed.

In order to gain the regency he felt he deserved, Cassander turned to Antigonus and Lysimachus for help. Antigonus wanted control of Macedonia, so he agreed to the alliance. Cassander gained control of Macedonia forcing Polypheron out. With Eumenes defeated, Antigonus controlled much of the eastern Mediterranean. He and his forces marched into Babylon causing Seleucus to flee to Egypt and form an alliance with Ptolemy. After Antigonus besieged the island city of Tyre, he moved his forces into Syria; however, his advances were stopped by Ptolemy and Seleucus.

This desire to reunite Alexander’s kingdom under his leadership brought Antigonus against the combined forces of Ptolemy, Lysimachus, Cassander, and Seleucus. After Antigonos’s son Demetrius was defeated by Ptolemy at the Battle of Gaza, Seleucus took back Babylon. With this defeat, a limited peace was declared, lasting from 315 to 311 BCE. The peace agreement left Antigonus in control of all of Asia Minor and Syria. The uneasy peace ended when Antigonus decided to make another move at claiming Macedonia and Greece by extending a peace offering to the Greek city-states granting them self-government and withdrawal of all Macedonian troops.

The historian Diodorus spoke of this extension of a helping hand when he stated in his World History:

All the Greeks should be free, exempt from garrisons, and autonomous. The soldiers carried the motion and Antigonus dispatched messengers in every direction to announce the resolution. He calculated as follows: The Greeks’ hopes for freedom would make them willing allies in the war, while the generals and satraps in the eastern satrapies, who suspected Antigonus of seeking to overthrow the kings who had succeeded Alexander, would change their minds and willingly submit to his orders when they saw him clearly taking up the war on their behalf.

While he gained the support of the Greek city-states, Antigonus incurred the wrath of the others who allied against him: Lysimachus invaded Asia Minor from Thrace, securing the old Greek Ionian cities and Seleucus marched through Mesopotamia and Cappadocia. The wars returned and continued for a number of years.

Ptolemy, Seleucus, Cassander, and Lysimachus finally combined their forces and met Antigonus in Phrygia in 301 BCE. At the age of 80, Antigonus died in the Battle of Ipsus from the simple throw of a javelin. Demetrius fled back to Macedonia to hopefully secure his rule there. For almost two more decades, he and his son Antigonus Gonata fought for Macedonia, eventually gaining control, establishing the Antigonid dynasty.

Conclusion

How can one assess Antigonus? Was he a great general? Plutarch in his Life of Demetrios said:

If Antigonus could only have borne to make some trifling concessions, and if he had shown any moderation in his passion for empire, he might have maintained for himself till his death and left to his son behind him the first place among the kings. But he was of a violent and haughty spirit; and the insulting words as well as actions in which he allowed himself could not be borne by young and powerful princes, and provoked them into combining against him.

Plutarch later stated that as the armies of his enemies came toward him at the Battle of Ipsus, he was confident that Demetrius would still rescue him, but Demetrius was engaged elsewhere in the battle. Antigonus remained that way "until he was borne down by a whole multitude of darts, and fell."

(Source: https://www.ancient.eu/Antigonus_I/)

More:
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antigon...
https://www.britannica.com/biography/...
https://www.livius.org/articles/perso...
https://military.wikia.org/wiki/Antig...
https://www.heritage-history.com/inde...
(no image) Antigonus I Monophthalmus by Jesse Russell (no photo)
(no image) A History of Macedonia by N.G.L. Hammond (no photo)
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by Edward M. Anson (no photo)
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